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I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 

Chap. 3-EV-U-U... 

Shelf ^KA3.- 

* 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 






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/ 

K E R L'S 



Language Lessons 



AN ELEMENTARY TEXT -BOOK 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EDITED BY 



S. M. PERKINS 

s 





IVISON, BLAKEMAN & COMPANY, 

PUBLISHERS, 
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 









Copyright, 1878, by Ivisow Blakeman, Taylor & Co, 



PEE F AC E. 



rpHE series of grammars by Simojs" Kerl has attained 
-**- a wide and well-deserved popularity; but in some 
large cities the prescribed course of study calls for a book 
differing in arrangement from either of "KeiTs Gram- 
mars" as hitherto published: and this volume has been 
prepared to meet the requirements in these cases of special 
grading. 

The design of this compilation is to present a practical 
elementary text-book for class-room work. 

The arrangement of topics, the frequent reviews, the 
suggested methods, and the indicated exercises in com- 
position will, it is believed, meet with the approval of 
experienced instructors in English Grammar. 

To the great body of earnest workers in the teacher's 
profession, this book is respectfully defeated. 

S. M. P. 

July 4, 1878. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

A and An , 14,101,105 

Adjectives 15, 101, 102, 107 

Adjuncts 57,58,59 

Adverbs 19,42,163-167 

Analysis 57 

Exercises in 58-69, 80, 82, 90, 93, 95, &7, 98, 105, 129, 158, 159, 181-186. 

Articles 14, 101, 108 

Attributes 5Y 

Auxiliary Verbs 113, 114 

Capital Letters 9, 18, 20, 51, 52 

Cases 89-95 

Clauses 9, 56, 65, 66 

Comparison 103, 104, 165 

Complex Sentences 63-67 

Compound Sentences 68, 69 

Conjugations ...... 135-149 

Conjunctions 22, 23, 43, 172-176 

Declensions 96, 97 

Etymology 10, 55 

False Syntax 48, 82, 95, 106, 107, 108, 160-163, 186-191 

Gender 84-86 

Infinitives 41, 119, 120 

Interjections 24, 43, 177 

Irregular Verbs Ill, 150-155 

Moods 116, 1 18 

Models for Notes and Letters 49, 50, 72 



VI INDEX. 

PAGE 

Nouns 11, 32, 33, 34, 35, 73, 74, 89-96 

Nouns Absolute 35, 90 

" Explanatory 35, 89 

" Independent 35, 90 

Number 8, 89 

Parsing 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 55, 74, 86, 90, 95, 97, 105, 118, 120,128,129 

Participles 35, 40, 122, 123 

Parts of Speech 11 

Persons 85, 86 

Phrases 9,42,56,60 

Predicate 7, 29, 56, 58-64 

Prepositions 20, 21, 43, 167-171 

Pronouns 12, 13, 33, 75-81 

Punctuation 28, 29, 35, 52, 53, 54 

Relations of Words 32-43 

Reviews 26, 46, 70, 71, 82, 83, 99, 109, 156, 157, 178, 179 

Sentences 8,27,29,31,56,57,58-69 

Subject ~_ 7,29,56 

Syntax 32, 56 

" Rules of 89, 90, 92, 95, 102, 120, 123, 125, 167, 168, 173, 180, 181 

Tense 124, 125, 126 

Verbs 17, 40, 124-155 

Voice 114,115 



English Grammar. 



part i. 



LESSON I. 
THOUGHT AND ITS EXPRESSION. 

1. We have thoughts. 

2. We express our thoughts by means of words. 

3. Words are either spoken or written. 

4. Every saying or statement implies at least two things 
—something of which we speak, and what we say of it. 

John | studies. 

Snow | is falling. 
Who studies ? What is falling ? 
What do we say about John ? What about snow ? 

5. Subject. — The word or expression denoting that 
of which something is said, is called the subject. In 
the statement, " John studies," John is the subject. 

6. Predicate. — The word or expression denoting 
what is said of the subject, is called the predicate. 

In the statement, Mary is writing, is ivriting is the 
predicate, because it denotes what is said of Mary. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mention the subjects and predicates in the following 
statements, and tell why: 

Birds | sing. The sun | shines. 

The dew | has refreshed the flowers. 

Some rivers | flow swiftly. 

The Niagara Kiver | flows towards the North. 



LESSON II. 

THE SENTENCE. 

We combine words into sentences to express our 
thoughts. We write and talk in sentences. 

7. A Sentence is a combination of words making 
complete sense. A sentence is a thought expressed in 
words. 

A sentence must have a subject and predicate. 

The sentence, " The wind glides in leaves over the 
meadow" expresses a beautiful thought. The wind is the 
subject, because it denotes that of which something is 
said; glides in tvaves over the meadow, is the predicate, 
because it denotes what is said of the wind; and the en- 
tire expression is a sentence, because it is a combination 
of words making complete sense, or because it is a 
thought expressed in words. In the following state- 
ments, 

Say that the expression is a sentence, and tell why, 
mention the subjects and predicates, and why: 
Life passes away rapidly. 
The good pupil studies diligently. 



THE SENTENCE. 9 

An isthmus is a narrow neck of land. 

Behring Strait separates North America from Asia. 

Supply suitable subjects to the following predicates, so as 
to make complete sentences : 

have recited our lesson. 

is plowing his fields. 

— — ■ — are sold in the market. 

Supply suitable predicates : 

The frost . 



Our neighbor — . 

A flock of blackbirds . 

Pinks, lilies and roses . 

Rvile. — Tlie first word of every sentence should 
begin with a capital letter. 

8. A Phrase is two or more words properly put 
together, but not making a proposition or statement. 

9. A Proposition or Statement, is a subject com- 
bined with its predicate. 

10. A Clause is a proposition that makes only a 
part of a sentence. 

I will come with all possible speed, is a proposition or 
statement, of which / is the subject ; will come ivith all 
possible speed, is the predicate. It is also a sentence when 
it expresses the complete thought of the speaker. With 
all possible speed, is a phrase; the words are properly 
put together but do not make a proposition. 

I will come with all possible speed when he sends for me 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is a sentence, consisting of two propositions or clauses : 1 
will come with all possible speed, and when he sends for me. 

Supply such words as will make the following phrases 
complete sentences : 

— — • on the 4th of March* 

— ^ on the 22d of February, 1732. 

oyer the river. 



In the City of New York 



In fresh water and in salt. 



Add suitable phrases to the following expressions : 
Tea is imported . 



The camel is a beast — 
Strawberries grow wild 

Ships sail 

We can go 



LESSON III. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

11. Etymology treats of the classes of words, their 
properties and modifications. 

The expressing of our thoughts by means of words is 
called language or speech. 

Language consists of many thousands of words, but 
they can all be divided into a small number of classes. 



NOUNS. 11 

To express our thoughts, we use nine classes of words, 
which are therefore called Parts of Speech. 

12. The Parts of Speech are Nouns, Pronouns, Ar- 
ticles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- 
tions and Interjections. 

Note. — Articles may be properly classed with Adjectives, and In 
terjections scarcely deserve to be called a Part of Speech; still we 
give the above classification as that most generally used. 



NOUNS. 

Wherever we look — at home, in the street, in school — 
we are surrounded by objects or things. We see persons, 
animals and things. We hear sounds. We talk of love, 
beauty, sweetness, and many other things that we cannot 
see. 

Write the words: John, New York, tree, slate, bird, 
horse, apple, desk, goodness. 

Are these words that you have written the things them- 
selves, or the names of things ? 

They are names. 

13. All words that are names of objects are called 

nouns. 

14. A Noun is the name of anything. 

Tell what flowers grow in gardens. What things can 
boys eat ? What objects did yon see this morning on your 
way to school ? Who are your classmates ? 

What would you call the words you have mentioned ? 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

All words are nouns that denote anything you can see, 
hear, taste, smell, feel, or think of as being a person or 
thing. 

Tell which words are nouns in the following sentences, 
and why: 

The cradle rocks. The baby sleeps. The tree fell. 
The farmer raises grain and cattle. Bakers bake bread. 
Merchants sell goods. Teachers instruct pupils. John 
tells the truth. Honesty is the best policy. 

Write twenty nouns. 



LESSON IV. 
PRONOUNS. 

If I say, " I see you/' / represents the speaker, but it is 
not his name ; and you represents the person spoken to, 
without being his name. If I say, " William promised 
Mary that William would lend Mary William's grammar,. 
that Mary might study the grammar" you can easily see 
that the sentence is clumsy and disagreeable, because I 
have so often repeated the words William, Mary, and 
grammar. But if I say, " William promised Mary that 
he would lend her his grammar that she might study it" 
you notice that the sentence is much more simple and 
agreeable, because I haye used the little words he, she, and 
it for the nouns, William, Mary, and grammar, instead of 
repeating these nouns. 

Words that are used for nouns, or instead of nouns, are 
called pronouns. 



PRONOUNS. 13 

15. Pro-noun means for a noun. 

16. The words I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us, thou, 
thy, thine, thee, you, your, yours, he his, him, she, her, hers, 
it, its, they, their, theirs, them, myself, ourselves, yourself, 
yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ivho, which, 
what, whoever, ivhosoever, luhichever, whatever, and some- 
times that and as are pronouns, because in speaking we 
often use them in place of the names of the persons or 
things that we speak of. 

17. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

Put suitable pronouns for the words in italics : 

John has learned John's lessons. Mary has torn Mary's 
book. Lucy is pretty, and Lucy knows it, Thomas was 
disobedient, and therefore Thomas's teacher punished 
TIiomas. r Joseph and Mary went to meet Joseph and 
Martfs father, but Joseph and Mary's father came another 
way. 

Tell ivhich words in the following sentences are pro- 
nouns, and ivhy: 

I hope you will not lose the pencil which I lent you. 

As he entered the woods there flew up, a few yards from 
him, a large bird. The man who spoke to us owns the 
boat which we hired. 

Write ten sentences, each of ivhich shall contain a noun 
and pronoun. 

Ex. — / picked a rose for you. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

. LESSON V. 
ARTICLES. 

When we speak of only one object of a kind, but of no 
particular one, we generally place the word a or an before 
the name; as, a tree, an apple; if we mean some par- 
ticular object or objects, we place the before the names; 
as, the trees, the apples. 

18. These little words, a or an (meaning one), and 
the, which are used before nouns, are called Articles. 

19. An Article is the word the, a, or an, which is 
placed before a noun to limit its meaning. 

20. A is used when the following word begins with 
a consonant sound ; as, a man, a horse. An is used 
when the following word begins with a vowel sound ; 
as, an ox, an orange. 

21. A or an is used only before the names of single 
things ; the is used before names denoting one or more 
than one. 

Place a or an before each of the following nouns ; then 
the: man, egg, people, almond, island, continent. 

Write ten short sentences, each of which shall contain 
one of the following nouns with an article prefixed : 

Dog, hotel, rose, hour, stars, rivers, ocean, woods, 
scholars, flowers, others, houses. 

Ex. — James has a dog. The houses were burned. 






ADJECTIVES. 15 

LESSON VI. 
ADJECTIVES. 

We notice every day that objects are not all alike, even 
when of the same general kind. Some roses are red, some 
are white, and some are yellow. An apple may be large or 
small; red, green or yellow; hard or mellow; mealy or 
juicy. Sometimes we notice several things of interest in 
the same object. A river may be de^p, broad, clear and 
swift. These words that show the qualities of objects or 
describe them, are called adjectives. 

Sometimes we use words that do not express the quali- 
ties of objects, but that still serve to show what objects 
are meant. 

Such words are this, that, each, every, either, first, 
second, one, tivo, three, etc. 

These words are also called adjectives. 

In the sentence, " A good pupil will be industrious," 
good and industrious are adjectives, because they describe 
the pupil. And in the sentence, " This tree bore five 
bushels of apples," this is an adjective, because it makes 
the indefinite word tree mean a particular one ; and five 
is an adjective, because it limits the noun bushels, ex- 
pressing with it a definite number of bushels. 

22. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

Tell which are the adjectives in the following sentences, 
and why : 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The dark clouds indicate rain. 

The bright stars are shining. 

Those tall trees are old oaks. 

Yonder white clouds are beautiful. 

Those large, red apples are sour. 

Dear, patient, gentle Nell was dead. 

Write ten sentences, each of which shall contain an arti- 
cle and one of the following adjectives : 

White, pink, sour, good, tall, large, round, long, slow, 
young, beautiful, attentive. 

Ex. — A white rose is beautiful. 



LESSON VII. 

VERBS. 

When we speak of any object, we generally tell either 
what it is, what it does, or what is done to it. 

1. Flowers are beautiful. The ant is an insect. 

2. Birds sing. Boys play. Carpenters build houses. 

3. Fields are plowed. The corn was ground. 

The words are, is, sing, play, build, etc., by means of 
which we say things of the subjects, are called verbs. 

Such words as walk, run, leap, sivim, study, work, fly, 
read, eat, fall, flow, blow, and break, are verbs, because they 
tell what persons or things do, or they are used to express 
assertions, as, "The child walks," "The sun rises," "Birds 
fly." If I say, " The tree is green," is is used to assert the 
state of the troe; if I say, "The tree waves," zvaves tells 



VERBS. 1? 

what the tree does ; and if I say, " The tree was struck by 
lightning," teas struck tells what was done to the tree. 

" The river washes away the soil ; v here washes is a verb, 
because it tells what the river does. " The river is deep ; " 
here is is a verb, because it tells something of the river, or 
helps to show in what state it is. Sometimes we say that 
the verb affirms or predicates something of its subject. 
This is nearly the same as to tell you that it says some- 
thing of that about which we are talking. 

Verb means word. Verbs are called so by pre-eminence, 
because they are the chief words in the construction of 
sentences, 

23. A Verb is a word used to express tlie act or 
state of a subject. 

Tell ivhich is the noun, and ivhich the verb, in the fol- 
lowing sentences, and define each : 

Frogs leap. Fishes swim. The wind whistles. The 
thunder rolls. The lightning flashed. Clouds were 
moving. He recited his lesson. The door creaked. The 
snake crept into the grass. Out flew the partridges. 
Lilies and roses were blooming together. 

Put a suitable subject to each of the folloioing predicates : 
Is happy ; knows nothing ; am sick ; art released ; grew 

rapidly ; was neglected ; were neglected ; went away ; 

spoke sensibly ; replied; stepped forth ; retreated; should 

obey their parents ; was a great man. 

Say something of each of the folloioing objects, by telling 
tvliat they are : 



18 ENGLISH GRA3IMAR. 

Street, grass, hay, ice, stars, mountains, room, table. 
Ex. The street is dusty. 

Say something of each of the following objects, by telling 
what they do : 

Horse, farmers, trees, servant, dogs, tailor, teacher, 
scholar. 

Say something of each of the following objects, by telling 
what is done to them : 

Lesson, bonnet, bridge, yard, window, John, newspaper. 

24. Rule.— e^ZZ proper names, and words derived 
from proper names, should, begin with a capital 
letter. 

Write ten sentences, and underscore the subject of each 
sentence ivith one line, the predicate-verb with tivo, thus: 
The trees in the Park are growing finely. 

The battle of Waterloo was fought on the 18th of June, 

1815. 



LESSON VIII. 
ADVERBS. 

People do not all walk alike, nor talk alike, nor write 
alike. Hence we often use such words as well, badly, 
fast, slowly, gracefully, awkivardly, stoeetly, harshly, has- 
tily, etc., to describe the actions of persons or to distin- 
guish their actions from one another. These words are 
called adverbs, because they are generally added to verbs. 



ADVERBS. 19 

25. Ad-verb means to a verb. Adverbs are generally 
used to express manner, place, time, or degree, with 
reference to some act or state, 

" The water flows rapidly ; " rapidly is an adverb, be- 
cause it tells how the water flows. "It rained here 
then ;" here is an adverb, because it tells where it rained, 
and then is an adverb, because it tells when it v rained. 
" The water is very deep; " very is an adverb, because it 
tells how deep the water is. "The water flows very 
rapidly ; " very is an adverb, because it tells how rapidly 
the water flows. If I say, "He reasons correctly, speaks 
fluently, and persuades earnestly ; " " Walk up, walk 
doiun, walk in; exceedingly tall, surprisingly abrupt, 
more ingenious, most eloquent, very poiverfully, quite 
fast ; " you see that all of these italicized words tell how, 
where, when, or in what degree ; and they are therefore 
adverbs. 

26. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Mention the adverbs in the folloiving sentences, and 
why: Walk rapidly. Write slowly. You are playing 
* rudely. He is not going. The letter is well written. 
She visits us very often. The furnace is remarkably hot. 
He is sleeping soundly. The army fought very bravely. 
You have behaved improperly. The water flows swiftly 
through the dam. Speak distinctly. The dogs barked 
furiously. 

Rapidly is an adverb, because it tells how to walk. 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Complete the followi7ig sentences by adding an adverb to 
each : 

The weather is hot. A fox can run . I 

know deep it is. Tell me the lesson is, 

He was burned . 



was he burned. 

You know it was done. 

He fought . 



27. l^u.le.— The words I and O should always be 
capitals. 

WHte ten sentences, each of which shall contain one of 
these adverbs: Swiftly, here, hereafter, too, quite, very, 
quickly, steadily, noisily, sweetly, early, soon. 

Ex. — The horse is too old to run swiftly. 



LESSON IX. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

Houses are on the ground; cellars are under houses; 
and trees grow around houses. Boats run up and down 
rivers, and rivers flow between hills. The morning star 
rises before the sun, and night comes after sunset. 

The words on, under, around, up, down, between, before, 
and after, link the parts of the sentences together, and 
show the position or relation of things to one another. 

Such words are called prepositions, because they are 
generally placed before the nouns or pronouns with 
which they make descriptive phrases. Preposition comes 







PREPOSITIONS. 21 

from pre, before, and positio, placing ; the word, therefore, 
means placing before. 

28. A Preposition is a word used to show the rela- 
tion between a following noun or pronoun and some 
other word. 

Ex. — A school is kept in the house on the hill. 
Where? In ivhat house? 

In is a preposition, and shows the relation between house and is 
kept. 

On is a preposition, and shows the relation between hill and house. 

Tell the prepositions, and what nouns they are placed 
before : 

The bird sings on the branches. The branches bend 
before the wind. 

We write with steel pens. The dogs chase each other 
round the yard. 

He comes to school too early. The burglar climbed 
into the window. 

The cat jumped upon the table. Eolla was under the 
table. 

He was amongst his friends. They are going towards 
home. 

We ran across the road. The wagon ran oyer a little 
girl. 

Write ten sentences, each of tvhich shall contain one or 
more of the folloiving prepositions : 

In, into, on, upon, between, underneath, oyer, along, 
for, about, to, towards, with, around. 

Ex. — He went around the house for a ladder. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON X, 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

We frequently use certain words simply to connect 
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences, and to show the de- 
pendence of the parts thus connected. When you hear 
such words as and, but, because, you at once know that 
something more is to come, and that it bears a certain re- 
lation to what has been said. If I say, "John writes and 
ciphers;" '-John spilt his ink on the desk and on the 
floor ; " " John writes every day, and I generally look at 
his writing ; " you see that the word and adds something 
more to what has been said, or joins two words, two 
phrases, or two propositions together. 

Con-junction is derived from con, together, and junctio, 
joining; and it therefore means joining together, or some- 
thing that joins together. 

Such words as and, or, but, than, because, for, if, and 
though,are called conjunctions, because they serve to con- 
nect the parts of discourse. "Silks and jewels are showy 
but dear." 

And connects silks and jewels, and but connects showy and dear ; 
hence and and but are conjunctions. 

"He rides if he is sick;" "He rides, though he is 
sick; " "He rides because he is sick." 

Here if, though, and because are conjunctions, because each con 
nects two clauses* 



CONJUNCTIONS. 23 

29. A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. 

Tell ivhich words in the following sentences are conjunc- 
tions, and why : , 
The trees are budding, and the birds are singing. 
He is brave, but he is cautious. 
I shall go out if it does not rain. 
I am not acquainted with him, nor do I wish to be. 
You must study, or you will not learn. 
He studied that he might learn. 
We blamed him because he did wrong. 
Frank is taller than John. 
James and Henry will study French or German. 
As the hour has come we will commence. 

Supply conjunctions : 

James John must do it. 

You must go home you are sick. 

You will fail you study. 

You will fail you do not study. 

The rose is more fragrant the peony. 

Tell of what part of speech each ivord is, and tvhy : 
The cork-tree sheds its bark every ten years. 

Ex. — The is an article, because it is placed before the 
word cork-tree to show that a particular object is meant. 
Cork-tree is a noun, because it is the name of an object, 
and so on. 

A snake crept through the fence into the grass. 
The meadow is covered with grass and flowers. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XI. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

When we see, hear, or in any other way notice things, 
our feelings are often suddenly excited, and we utter, al- 
most unconsciously, certain little words that show these 
emotions. Words of this kind are such as 0, oh, ah, pish, 
tut, aha, wheiv, etc., which you have doubtless often heard. 
They generally express surprise, wonder, joy, grief, anger, 
or contempt. 

Interjection means throwing between; and since these 
words are loosely thrown between other words in speak- 
ing, they are called interjections. 

30. An Interjection is a word that expresses an 
emotion, and is not connected in construction with 
any other word. 

" Day broke ; but then, oh ! what a spectacle was that battle- 
field I " Oh is an interjection, because it expresses the sudden emo- 
tion of the speaker, and is not related to any of the other words of 
the sentence. 

In the following sentences tell the prepositions, conjunc- 
tions, and interjections, and vjhy : 

The water ran around the bridge and over the bridge. 
There is a walk and a carriage road from the church to 
the college. 

Alas ! no hope for me remains. 

He is stout in appearance, yet he is sickly. 

We lost the battle, notwithstanding we did our utmost 
to win it. 

This pupil will learn because he is attentive. 



SENTENCES. 25 

Tell what part of speech each word is in the following 
sentences : 

Good order is the foundation of all good things. 

God reared the mountains with their pine-clad spires. 

On this stream we found magnolias and cedars. 

If it continues to rain, the river will rise. 

Thunder rolled in every quarter of the heavens. 

Ha, ha, ha ! he is a fine gentleman truly. 

Her eyes looked into every eye that fell upon them. 

The grapes were sour, but the peaches were deliriously 
ripe. . 

The Little Bird's Complaikt. 
Here in this wiry prison caged, I sing, 

And think of sweet green woods, and long to fly; 
Unable once to stretch my feeble wing, 

Or wave my feathers in the clear blue sky. 

Day after day, the self-same things I see, 
The cold white ceiling, and this wiry house ; 

Ah ! how unlike my healthy native tree, 

Kocked by the winds, that whistled through the bought 

Oh ! how I long to stretch my weary wings, 

And fly away as far as eye can see ; 
And from the topmost bough where Kobin sings, 

Pour my wild songs, and be as blithe as he. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XII. 
REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS. 

1. A Subject is a word or expression denoting that 
of which something is said. 

2. A Predicate is a word or expression denoting 
what is said of the subject. 

3. A Sentence is a combination of words making 
complete sense, or it is a thought expressed in 
words. 

4. A Phrase is two or more words properly joined 
together, but not making a statement. 

5. A Proposition is a subject combined with its 
predicate. 

6. A Clause is a proposition that makes only a part 
of a sentence. 

7. The Parts of Speech are classes of words which 
we use to express our thoughts. 

8. The Parts of Speech are nouns, pronouns, ar- 
ticles, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con- 
junctions, and interjections. 

9. A Noun is the name of anything. 

10. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

11. An Article is the word the, a, or an, which is 
placed before a noun to limit its meaning. 

12. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

13. A Verb is a word used to express the act or 
state of a subject. 



SENTENCES. 27 

14. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

15. A Preposition is a word used to show the rela- 
tion between a following noun or pronoun and some 
other word. 

16. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, or sentences. 

17. An Interjection is a word that expresses an 
emotion, and is not connected in construction with 
any other word. 

18. Etymology treats of the derivation, classes, and 
properties of words. 



LESSON XIII. 

SENTENCES. 

When we speak or write to a person, we usually do so 
either to tell him something, to ask him something, or to 
bid him do something. And seutences are accordingly 
either declarative, interrogative, or imperative. 

31. A declarative sentence is an assertion. 

32. An interrogative sentence is a question. 

33. An imperative sentence is a command or re- 
quest. 

Declarative. Interrogative, Imperative. 

The soldier rests. Does the soldier rest ? Soldier, rest. 

John goes to school. Does John go to school ? John, go to schooL 

She went home. Did she go home ? Go home. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

]Rixle.— f ^ declarative or imperative sentence 
should be followed by a period ; an interrogative 
sentence by an interrogation-point ; and a sen- 
tence used as an exclamation by an exclamation- 
point. 

Tell tvh ether the following sentences are declarative, in- 
Urrogative, or imperative, and why ; also mention the sub' 
ject and predicate of each : 

He is honest. Is he honest ? Be honest. The sum- 
mits of the Eocky Mountains are covered with snow. 
Take away these books. Why are we here idle ? Go to 
the ant, thou sluggard ! The wind is never weary. Is 
it raining ? Work, boys, work. Wolves were once com- 
mon in every part of this country. Were you in time for 
the train ? The lone sheep is in danger of wolves. Wake 
not a sleeping lion. War brings scars. Weeds do not 
need sowing or culture. Do not "count chickens before 
they are hatched. Is dinner ready ? A bird in the hand 
is worth two in the bush. Are you hurt ? Time de- 
vours all things. What comes from the heart, goes to 
the heart. Do not say, go; but go thyself. 

34. In imperative sentences, the subject is thou ot 
you, understood. 

Write five declarative, five interrogative, and five impera* 
tive sentences. Underscore the subjects in the declarative 
and interrogative sentences ivith one line; underscore all 
fie predicate-verbs ivith two lines. 

Ex. — Oranges are brought from Florida. 

Will you lend me a pencil ? 

John, bring me a glass of water. 



SEXTEXCES. 29 

LESSON XIV. 

SENTENCES. 

An assertion can be made of one thing, or of two ot 
more distinct things; and one assertion, or two or more 
distinct assertions, may be made of the same subject. In 
the sentence, " The boy is going to school/*' the subject 
and the predicate are simple; in the sentence, "The boy 
and his sister are going to school," the subject is com- 
pound; and in the sentence, "The boy studies and 
plays" the predicate is compound. 

35. The subject of a sentence may be either simple 
or compound. 

38. The predicate of a sentence may be either 
simple or compound. 

Mention the subjects and predicates in the following sen- 
tences, and tell whether they are simple or compound: 

John and James study. John reads and writes. Winds 
and storms are but currents of air. He lighted his lamp, 
and sat down by the table, but soon slept with all his 
might. Beauty is a blossom. Time and distance tame the 
strongest grief. Books, music, and gardening are his de- 
light. After clouds comes fair weather. Apples, peaches, 
plums, and melons grow in most parts of our country. I 
must either sell or borrow. The lark soars and sings. 

37. Rule.. — When two words in a series of 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, are not con- 
nected by a conjunction, they should be separated 
by a comma. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. 1. — John, James, and Henry brought their gram- 
mars, arithmetics, spellers, and blank-books to school. 

Ex. 2.— The wind was strong, keen, fitful, and boister- 
ous. 

Ex. 3. — The horse reared, kicked, plunged, and at last 
broke loose from the carriage. 

Ex. 4— They positively, repeatedly, and angrily denied 
the charge. 

In the folloiving expressions, mention the phrases and 
sentences, and define each ; change phrases into sentences ; 
resolve composite sentences into their clauses ; resolve sen- 
fences or clauses into subjects and predicates, and define 
these parts : 

A clear and beautiful stream ran along the bluffs. 
Under a shady maple. Her eyes were blue, like blossom- 
ing flax. The diamond is the most precious gem. Blown 
down by the wind. Palm-trees grow in Asia, Africa, and 
South America. Some boys and girls are very careless. 
To study diligently. The thunder burst in tremendous 
explosions. The peals were echoed from mountain to 
mountain. The storm seemed to have brought all the 
artillery of heaven into action. Williams, the barber. 
When I had recited my lessons. Literature is a garden, 
books are particular views of it, and readers are visitors. 
How soon are we forgotten when we are gone! Set a 
frog on a golden chair, and he will leap back into hi 
dirty pool. Springs flow from natural reservoirs unde 
ground. Lakes are supplied with water by rivers, brooks, 
or springs. He that has ill luck, gets ill usage. Eagles 
do not catch flies. Men, like pillars, are strong only 



SENTENCES. SYNTAX. 31 

while they are upright. The purest water comes from 
hardest rock. 

Make sentences, and embody in tliem the following 
phrases: 

Under the snow. Decked with flowers. To study 
more diligently. By the brook. Planted in rows. To 
see the sun rise. In the deepest pool. Glowing with 
heat. To spend the day. Over field and forest. Having 
nothing to do. To play with his dog. 



LESSON XV. 

SENTENCES. SYNTAX. 

Change each set of the following statements into one sen- 
tence ; mention the subject and predicate, and all the parts 
of speech, and define each : 

1. The tree was struck. It was an oak tree. The tree 
was old. It was a fine tree. It grew in the Park. The 
lightning struck it. It was night when it was struck. 
The night was Thursday night. It was twelve o'clock 
when it was struck. 

How much more briefly and elegantly is all this in- 
formation expressed in one sentence ! The fine old oak 
tree in the Park zvas struck by lightning at 12 o'clock on 
Thursday night. 

2. Banks were overflowed. They were the banks of the 
Mississippi. This was on the 15th of last June. 

3. A boy came. He was pretty. He was little. He 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



was blue-eyed. He had rosy cheeks. He came with a 
young, white rabbit. He had it in his pinafore. He 
brought it to his mother. 

4. The girl wrote a letter. She was a good girl. She 
wrote it to her mother. It was a long letter. She wrote 
it on her mother's birthday. She wrote in the morning. 

Elizabeth harangued her troops. Elizabeth was a 
queen. She harangued them with much spirit. It was at 
Tilbury Port. It was before the Spanish Armada arrived. 
It was only a little time before. 

37. Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement 
of words in sentences. 



LESSON XVI. 



RELATIONS OF WORDS. 

38. A noun or pronoun may be the subject of a verb. 

Ex.— The tree fell. (What fell ?) The flower is un- 
folding. The partridges flew away. The ship moves. 
The dell rings. The storm roars. She laughed. (Who 
laughed ?) He is reading. I shall return soon. The 
toys skate. The trees wave. The fire crackles and flames. 

The ocean is blue. (What is blue ?) This map is beau- 
tiful. The well was deep. Her dress was white and neat. 
The lark is a singing bird. A thief is also a liar. Our 
corn is gathered. The bread is baked. Brass is made of 
zinc and copper. 



RELATIONS OF WORDS. 33 

39. A noun or pronoun may be the object of a verb. 
Ex. — The fisherman catches fish. (Catches what ?) 

The boy broke the looking-glass. My mother spins flax. 
The carpenter mended the door. The caterpillars de- 
voured the buds. The weaver weaves yarn into cloth. 
The barber shaved me. I invited him. They hid them- 
selves. The sun is warming the garden. Snow has cov- 
ered the hills. She sang us a song. 

Song is a noun, and is the object of the verb sang; it tells what 
she sang. 

40. A noun or pronoun may be the object of a 
preposition. 

Ex. — I was going down the street. (Down what ?) The 
Mississippi river rises in Minnesota. The book lay on the 
table. The child fell into the well. The bridge extends 
over the river. There is a plank-road from the church to 
the college. Several railroads run through Pennsylvania. 
The garden lies behind the house. The swallows flutter 
about the eaves. 

The whirlwind passed around the asylum and de- 
stroyed the church. 

Asylum is a noun, the object of the preposition around ; church is 
a noun, the object of the verb destroyed. 

41. A noun or pronoun may be a possessive, or word 
denoting possession or ownership. 

Ex. — Here is the boy's book. Here are the boys' books, 
This is the man's hat. These are the men's hats. I have 
cleaned my desk. We have cleaned our desks. You have 
broken your slate. He has bruised his thumb. She has 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

torn her book. They had lost their way. This is mine ; 
that is yours ; and the other is hers. Yours are better 
than ours. My brother's estate belongs to one person 
only. My brothers'' estate belongs to two or more persons. 
My friend's request comes from one person only. My 
friends' request comes from two or more persons. It is 
oar duty, not theirs, to supply the people's wants. Foi 
goodness 1 sake, help me out of my troubles. He resides 
near St. James's Place. 

Boy's is a possessive noun, governed by book. Booh is the word 
that leads to the use of the possessive form of boy. 

Hence the possessive is said to be governed by the name of the 
thing possessed. 

42* A noun or pronoun may be explanatory of an- 
other noun or pronoun denoting the same person or 
thing* ^ 

Ex. — Webster, the orator and statesman, was not related 
to Webster, the author. 

Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, was a braye man. 

He was elected Governor. 

They called her Mary*. 

It was he. It is I. 

Write five sentences, each of which shall contain a po& 
sessive noun or pronoun, and five which shall contain an 
explanatory noun or pronoun ; underscore as in the ex- 
amples. 

Ex. — Jane and Majjf saw their father's house in the dis- 
tance. 

Mary was the most studious pupil in her class. 



SYNTAX. 35 

Rule. — Explanatory nouns, pronouns, or 
phrases, following the principal terms, should 
be separated from such terms and from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. 

Ex. — The pupils of the school, bright-eyed logs and 
girls, were singing "America." 



LESSON XVII. 

SYNTAX. 

RELATIONS OF WORDS. 

43. A noun is independent when it has no depend- 
ence on any other word in the sentence. 

Ex. — William, you may recite your lesson. 

You is the subject of the verb may recite ; your is a possessive, 
governed by lesson ; lesson is the object of the verb may recite ; 
William is an independent noun. 

44. A noun is said to be absolute when joined with a 
participle, but not connected with & finite verb. 

45* A finite verb is a verb used to predicate (say) 
something of its subject. 

46. A participle is a form of the verb that expresses 
the act or state, without predicating it of a subject^ 
and generally has the sense of an, adjective. 

Ex. — The train having started, we were obliged to wait 
another day. 

Train is a noun, absolute with the participle having started. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The storm having hirst upon us, we took refuge in 
the nearest hut. 
The storm being over we continued our journey. 

47* A pronoun refers to the noun or term which it 

represents* 

Ex. — James saw his mistake. 

His is a possessive pronoun ; it refers to James, and is governed 
by mistake. 

The father and his son cultivated the farm, which they 
had purchased. 

To what does his refer ? Which ? They? 

Tell the parts of speech in the following sentences, and to 
what the pronouns refer : 

Henry's brother has brought my horse. 

Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest 
thought. 

I will meet you at Smith's, the bookseller. 

Her brother went to the doctor, who quickly removed 
the cause of his annoyance. 

My mother ! when I learned that thou wast dead, 

Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? 

Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son ? 

Wretch even then, life's journey just begun ! 

I heard the bell tolled on thy funeral day ; 

I saw the hearse that bore thee slow away; 

And, turning from my nursery window, drew 

A long, long sigh, and wept a last adieu ! — Oowper. 

Write ten sentences, each of which shall contain a noun 



SYNTAX. 3? 

that is independent, or that is absolute, with a parti- 
ciple ; underscore as in the examples. 

Ex. Ladies and gentlemen , you are welcome. 

The leader baying fallen, his troops fled. 



LESSON XVIII. 

RELATIONS OF WORDS. 

48. Articles and adjectives relate to nouns and pro- 
nouns. 

They relate to the words they point out, limit or describe. Some- 
times we use the word modify to convey the same idea. 

Ex. — It was a gusty, playful wind, frolicking with leafy 
trees. 

A is an article, relating to wind; gusty and playful are adjectives, 
relating to wind. 

Tell the articles and adjectives in the following sent ences, 
and the nouns to ivhich they relate : 

Africa is the native land of the negro race. 

The young grass covers the dark ground like a delicate 
green carpet. 

In Winter the prairies are gloomy and desolate. 

Scarlet and golden maples waved below million-fingerea 
pines. 

In this nook, we saw four or five squirrels, some 
turkeys, and many partridges. 



dtf ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Iii the temperate zones, people are most healthy, happy, 
and intellectual. 

The pleasant artisan has made a beautiful box for the 
noble Italian lady. 

The sweet, gentle young girl watched by the couch 
of her suffering brother. 

49. Phrases and clauses are often used as adjec* 
tives, to show who, what, or ivhat Mnd is meant. 

Ex. — There is no place of safety for him. 
What kind of place ? Of safety is an adjective phrase, and relates 
to or modifies 'place. 

A man of perseverance generally succeeds. 

What kind of man ? Man is the subject, modified by the article a 
and the adjective phrase of perseverance ; succeeds is the predicate- 
verb, and is modified by the adverb generally. 

The people who flatter you are not your friends. 
What people? People is the subject, modified by the article the 
and the adjective clause, who flatter you. 

Tell the adjective phrases and adjective clauses in the 
following sentences, and the nouns or pronouns to which 
they relate: 

The rain which fell yesterday has been very refreshing. 

In this sentence, rain is the subject, modified by the article 
the, the adjective clause which fell yesterday, and the adjective 
phrase mry refreshing. What has been very refreshing ? The pred- 
icate-verb is has been, and the entire predicate is has been very re- 
freshing. We see from this that the predicate may contain words 
and phrases that attribute or ascribe conditions and qualities to the 
subject. 

Adjectives and adjective phrases that complete the 



SYNTAX. 39 

predicate are called attributes, or attribute words and 
phrases. 

He was without home and without friends. 

The path through the meadow is the nearest. 

People then wore buttons of brass and buckles of silver. 

The garments scorched by fire are worthless. 

Knives made from steel are the best. 

The people who flatter you are not your friends. 

The lady who sings so well came from Italy. 

We respect those who respect themselves. 

"The night comes swiftly, like a hunted man who 
cloaks his sin." 

" Among the hills of Spain there stands 
A fabric reared by holy hands." 

" King Kobert, who was standing near the throne, 

Lifted his eyes, and lo! he was alone ! 

# # * * 

And when his courtiers came they found him there, 
Kneeling upon the floor, absorbed in prayer." 

Write five sentences, each of toliich shall contain an 
adjective phrase, and five which shall contain an adjective 
clause. Underscore the adjective phrases with one line, the 
adjective clauses with two. 

Ex. The productions of our soil furnish the wealth 
of the cou ntry. 

We should take care of the soldiers who fought our 
battles. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XIX. 
RELATIONS OF WORDS. 

50. A verb relates to some noun or pronoun as its 
subject. 

Ex. — Each flower expands its little leaves. 
Expands is a verb ; it tells what the flower does, and relates to 
/lower. 

The vessel struck a hidden rock and sunk. 
Struck and sunk are verbs, and relate to their subject, vessel. 

Mention the verbs in the following sentences, and to what 
subjects they relate : 
The breeze blows cool; the waters quiver under it; and 

softened sunbeams pour around a fairy light. 
We walked the deck, and gazed upon the billows. 
Our work was done, and we were seated under the old 

elm. 
" Down the hills of Angostura still the storm of battle 

rolls ; 
Blood is flowing, men are dying ; God have mercy on 

their souls !" 

51. A participle is a form of the verb that expresses 
an act or state but does not predicate ; that is, a par- 
ticiple alone, with a subject, does not make a com- 
plete statement, and it may, besides, have the sense 
of a noun or adjective. 

Ex. — The birds, awaking, burst into a song. 

Awaking is a participle, and relates to birds ; it expresses a state, 
but does not predicate. What do the birds do ? Burst is the pred- 
icate-verb, and relates to birds. 



SYNTAX. 41 

The clouds, touched by the sun, seemed to glow with 
fire. 

What is said of the clouds": Touched is a. participle, and relates 
to clouds. Touched is the principal word in the adjective \ 
touched by the sun. 

The sun having arisen, we proceeded on our way. 
Hating arisen is a participle, relating to tint. Sun is aha 

with the participle having arisen, as it is not the subject of any 
finite verb. 

52. Aii Infinitive is a form of the verb that begins 
with to, but does not predicate. It relates to an ex- 
pressed or indefinite subject, and generally depends 
upon some other word; it may. besides, have the 
sense of a noun, adjective or adverb. 

Ex. — The clouds, touched by the sun, seemed to glow 
with lire. 

To glow is an infinitive. Seemed what? What to glow! To 

gioic relates to clouds, and depends upon seemed. 

The bee brought his honey to sweeten the feast. 
Why ? What to sweeten ? 

He was anxious to return. 

To return relates to he, and depends upon anxious. 

Write fi Jk of which shall contain a par- 

ticiple, a.. -Inch shall contain an innnitirc. Under* 

score the participles with one line, the inf. tiro. 

Ex. — We saw two kittens playing 1 in the garden. 

To ride is pleasant. Most people love to ride. 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON" XX. 
RELATIONS OF WORDS. 

53. An Adverb relates to a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. 

Mention the adverbs in the following sentences, and to 
what they relate : 

The eagle flies swiftly. God is everywhere. 

Swiftly is an adverb, it tells how the eagle flies, and relates to 
flies. Adverbs are found by asking How f When t Where ? 
In what degree f etc. 

They softly lie, and sweetly sleep, low in the ground. 

Never before did I see her look so pale. How pale ? 

He has already been there very frequently. 

You are yet young enough to learn quite easily. 

Your book is more beautiful, but mine is more useful. 

Perhaps I have been rather idle hitherto ; but hence- 
forth I will certainly try to study more diligently. 

England is so highly cultivated that it looks like one 
vast garden. 

54. Phrases and clauses are often used as adverbs. 
Ex. — We played in the meadow. Where? 

He remained till morning. 

The family emigrated from Spain to Cuba, during the 
last century. 

The last example is a simple sentence ; the subject is the family ; 
the predicate is emigrated from Spain to Cuba during the last cen- 
tury. The subject -noun is family, which is modified by the ; the 
predicate -verb is emigrated^ which is modified by the three adverbial 
phrases, from Spain, to Cuba, and during the last century. 



SYNTAX. 43 

LESSON XXL 
RELATIONS OF WORDS. ANALYSIS. 

55. A Preposition shows the relation of a following 
noun or pronoun to some other word. 

56. A Conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, 
or sentences. 

57. Interjections, and nouns or pronouns, in ad- 
dress, are used independently. 

Mention the prepositions in the following sentences, and 
hetiveen what they show the relation; the conjunctions, 
and what they connect ; the interjections and other words, 
used independently : 

The surface of the earth consists of land and water. 

Of is a preposition, showing the relation of earth to surface. 
(What surface ? What of the earth ?) And is a conjunction, con- 
necting land and water. 

Streams of water generally flow into lakes, and from 
them. 

Alas ! my noble boy, that thou shouldst die ! 

The earth, or globe on which we live, is not perfectly 
round. 

The people are healthy, though the climate is severe. 

Glide on, Moon! fairer than a silvery boat in the 
upper deep. 

If you deal with a fox, think of his tricks. 

Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utter folly. 

The dog meant play; but, hoity-toity! how the cat 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

raised her back, and growled, notwithstanding he was so 
friendly ! 

He upbraided them because they repented not. 

Because is a conjunction, connecting the clause preceding and the 
one coming after. 

« Why was I taken from my waving nest ; 

From flowery fields, wild woods, and hedges green? 
Torn from my mother's warm and downy breast, 

In this sad prison-house to die unseen ? 
Kind lady, come, with gentle, pitying hand, 

Unbar my prison-door, and set me free ; 
Then on the white-thorn bush I'll take my stand, 

And sing sweet songs to freedom and to thee." 
Resolve the following sentences into as many statements 
as possible; resolve these into their subjects and predi- 
cates ; tell tuhat part of speech each word is, and to ivhat 
it relates or tuhat its use is : 

The Lonely Prisoner. 
" For more than four long years 
I've gazed on prison walls, 
From morning's earliest dawning light, 

'Till shade of evening falls. 
In dreams I visit oft 

That dear, familiar home; 
My wife and children gather round, 

Eight glad that I am come. 
The lovely little ones, 

Sit prattling on my knee ; 
€ Father, what made you stay so long? >* 
Have you been o'er the sea ? ' 



SYNTAX. 45 

The tears of joy flow fast, 

And quite bedim my eyes ; 
0, is there happiness like this, 

Except beyond the skies ? 
But, ah! the illusion breaks! 

Who shall my fate bemoan ? 
The wretched prisoner awakes, 

To find himself alone. 
Ye who have never known, 

How lonely prisoners live, 
Unless your hearts be made of stone, 

A sigh of pity give." 

"Faded is Alva's noble race, 

And gray her towers are seen afar; 
No more her heroes urge the chase, 

Or roll the crimson tide of war." — Byrok. 

"In the chimneys of the disused rooms, swallows had 
built their nests for many a long year, and from earliest 
spring to latest autumn, whole colonies of sparrows 
chirped and twittered in the eaves. There were more 
pigeons about the dreary sta,ble-yard and outbuildings 
than anybody but the landlord could reckon up." — 
Dickens. 

" The Judge looked back as he climbed the hill, 
And saw Maud Muller standing still : 
' A form more lair, a face more sweet, 
Ne'er hath it been my lot to meet. 
And her modest answer and graceful air, 
Show her wise and good as she is fair/ " 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXII. 
REVIEW. 

1. A declarative sentence is an assertion. 

2. An interrogative sentence is a question. 

3. An imperative sentence is a command or request. 

4. The subject of an imperative sentence is thou or 
you understood. 

5. The subject of a sentence may be either simple 
or compound. Give an example. 

6. The predicate of a sentence may be either simple 
or compound. Give an example. 

7. Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement 
of words in sentences. 

8. A noun or pronoun may be the subject of a verb. 
Give an example. 

9. A noun or pronoun may be the object of a verb. 
Give an example. 

10. A noun or pronoun may be the object of a 
preposition. Give an example. 

11. A noun or pronoun may be a possessive, or word 
denoting ownership. Give an example. 

12. A noun or pronoun may be explanatory of 
another noun or pronoun, denoting the same persor 
or thing. Give an example. 

13. A noun is independent when it has no de^ 
pendence on any other word in the sentence. Give 
an example. 

14. A noun or pronoun is said to be absolute when 



REVIEW. 4? 

joined with a participle, but not connected with any 
finite verb. 

15. A finite verb is a verb used to predicate some- 
thing of its subject. 

16. A participle is a form of the verb that expresses 
the act or state, without predicating it of a subject, 
and generally has the sense of an adjective. 

17. A pronoun refers to the noun or term which it 
represents. 

18. Articles and adjectives relate to the nouns and 
pronouns that they limit or describe. 

19. Phrases and clauses are often used as adjec- 
tives, and are then called adjective phrases, or adjec- 
tive clauses. 

20. A verb relates to some noun or pronoun as its 
subject, or to some phrase or clause used in the sense 
of a noun. 

21. An infinitive is a form of the verb that begins 
with to, but does not predicate. It relates to an 
expressed or indefinite subject, and generally depends 
upon some other word. 

22. An adverb relates to a verb, adjective, or other 
adverb. 

23. Phrases and clauses are often used as adverbs. 

24. A preposition shows the relation of a following 
noun or pronoun to some other word. 

25. A conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, 
or sentences. 

26. Interjections, and nouns or pronouns, used in 
direct address, are used independently. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXIII. 
INCORRECT EXPRESSIONS. 

The teacher should keep a list of incorrect expressions in common 
use, and train the pupils by precept and example to a correct use of 
language, even though they are not prepared to understand the 
technical rules of grammar. 

Correct the following expressions : 

You aint going home yet. I aint ready. It aint so. 
He han't got it. You hadn't ought to go. Have you got 
a knife. We haye got a horse. John done it. We done 
the sums. I didn't do nothing. I come to school early. 
James come to school yesterday. I han't got nothing. I 
don't know nothing about it. John laid down on the 
sofa. We saw the book laying on the table. Eover has 
laid down. After laying awhile he raised up. The 
teacher learned me to cipher. I seen him yesterday. 
You seen him coming up the street. Set down in that 
chair. I saw him setting on the steps. Go into the 
setting room. Sit the lamp upon the table and let it set 
there. She's went home. He's tuent down stairs. Give 
me them books. Did you see them birds ? Are them two 
girls going with us ? Them is my sentiments. This here 
slate is broken. That there pencil is mine. It is me. 
John and me went to the house. It was him and me. 
I knew it was him. Between you and /. He called her 
and i". You may have either of the four apples. Neither 
of the six books was the one I wanted. Neither of the 
six books ivere here. Divide the apple detiveen us three. 

Either, neither, and between should be used where only two ob- 
jects are spoken of. 



SYNTAX. 49 

Give each girl their hats. She was the youngest of the 
two sisters. He has took my hat. The river is froze. 

To be written at the dictation of the teacher. 

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'pa-zd/L-ed <w,ate <Co €-&-me, ^0 ted. *zd d-aa^t -ad ^-ate 
te-tzd-e <£o -ca^a^-e £o ted, <cze.€Z't -eztewt, 



-czw-cl dltztz -t-tt'C'&L ted sC-t^C ^-n-a-t^e^i <cd -^e^l-e^i. 



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t<ate -cei^i -c-awi-e, €iwt/ 'Ut/Le&i 'tu-e wi&sw ■e-zfe-ecC ^ute. 



yew ^f^at-fe; 0?<z<n.. o% *$/$. 

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<a,<o <2^e4y£ C/l/(Q)<idSt<cz€Zsy,. 

3 ' 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

©^f i^W y c/'e-a. s / Jg/#. 



^/p&M't J&0<yi0L jf%Z'U<a'i &j£ '&2se ££</ ^^57 
A.0Zd 4,4td / £ -c-awi'e d^o <A*zd^0£. ds <tz<m <n,€iwfoM, d?0 

d^ats, <££tzdf ds dA-a,'t>& d^ad<£ fo-d Csv-et^ ^-^0dfi £j„ 

(Note of Invitation.) 

O^, (y^^'^d-a^i det7,u0<Pld <£Si-e fed^cuUcLe. 0.^ 

^Ud0^a-^ dt-e-^tf *&£ S o -C-C00-A,. 

</££ ©£W^i ©^7, G/l/(Q ) 0yn0^t^ / S^/A (q/c£. 

(Reply.) 

un-a-M. 01000 fa £d vut'd^A faie'€idud<e Cs/lQ-i, 



-c^ti'ty dd0<^^ -ti^t S 0-100^. 

y& <Ov($€L4W4i4pue. ©§T, C/'wed0Z0iy / /^$€ ^0-1. 

Write a letter to youi* teacher, and be particular about 
the place of the date, the address, the form of closing, the 
punctuation, and the use of capitals. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 51 

LESSON XXIV. 
CAPITAL LETTERS. 

1. The first word of every sentence should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Ex. — Learning makes a man a fit companion for himself. 

2. The first word of every direct quotation should 
begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — He said " Knowledge is power." She answered " Yes." 

3. The first word of every line of poetry should 
begin with a capital letter. 

4. The words I and O should always be capitals. 

5. Every word denoting the Deity should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Ex.— The Most High; the Supreme; Divine Providence; the 
Holy Ghost. 

6. Every proper noun, or each chief word of a 
proper noun, and all words derived from proper 
nouns, should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — George Washington ; A. B. Merton ; the Duke of Welling- 
ton ;"the United States ; American ; English. 

7. Every title, whether used alone or in connection 
with a proper noun, should begin with a capital. 

Ex. — Mrs. E. C. Stanton ; Maj. Holt ; Gen. Barlow; Hon. Robert 
Wells ; James E. Smith, Esq. ; Col. Dodge. 

" The Doctor now heard the approach of clattering hoofs." 

8. A common noun, applied to a personified object, 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

often becomes a proper noun in sense, and should then 
begin with a capital letter. 

Ex. — " The Wind and the Sun loved the Bose, 
But the Rose loved but one ; 
For who recks the wind where it blows, 
Or loves not tha sun f "— Btjlwer. 

9, The first word of an important clause, titles of 
books, topics, and words deserving special emphasis, 
should begin with a capital letter, 

Ex. — " Resolved, That we protest/' &c. ; The War Department. 



LESSON XXV. 

PUNCTUATION. 

58, Punctuation treats of certain points or marks 
used in writing and printing. 

1. A Period (.) should be placed after eyery sentence 
that is not interrogative or exclamatory. 

Also after a word or phrase complete by itself; and after 
an abbreviation. 

2. An Interrogation-Point (?) should be placed after 
every direct question. 

3. An Exclamation-Point (!) should be placed after 
every sentence or shorter expression that denotes great 
surprise or other emotion. 

Hence it is generally placed after interjections or un- 
usually earnest addresses. 



PUNCTUATION. 53 

4. Quotation-Marks (" ") are used to inclose words 
taken as the exact language of another person. 

" Single quotation-marks inclose 'a quotation within a 
quotation.'" 

5. A Hyphen (-) is used to join the parts of a com- 
pound word ; it is also placed at the end of a line, when 
one or more syllables of a word are carried to the begin- 
ning of the next line. 

6. The Comma (,) should be used to separate words in 
a series of nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs, when not 
connected by a conjunction ; to set off words in apposi- 
tion, words or phrases used independently, and paren- 
thetic words, phrases, or clauses. 

The comma is used to set off a modifying word, phrase, 
or clause that is not closely connected with what it modi- 
fies, or that is removed from it by inversion ; it is also 
used between a word and its repetition ; and, generally, 
the comma should be used whenever it will prevent 
ambiguity, or help to present more clearly the thought 
contained in the sentence. 

Ex. 1. — Hedges, groves, orchards, and gardens were in bloom. 

It was a dark, desolate region. 

Our captain then went to the camp, called upon the officer in com- 
mand, and informed him who we were, whence we had come, and 
whither we intended to go. 

Ex. 2. — The great novelist, " George Eliot," is a lady. 

Ex. 3.— This book, Mary, is yours. 0, yes, sir, I do know. 

Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 

Ex. 4. — You will then, however, be in no better condition. 

Moral culture, especially in youth, is of the greatest importance. 

They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, reached the placa 

Columbus, who was a Genoese, discovered America. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. 5. — In a central region, midway on this continent, at an ele- 
vation of seven thousand five hundred feet, lies the remarkable 
valley of Mexico. 

Ex. 6. — Sweet, sweet home ! 

Ex. 7. — The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. 

" The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians" may have a 
different meaning. 

7. The Semicolon (;) is used to separate parts that have 
the comma, or parts that require a point greater than the 
comma and less than the colon . 

Ex. — Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 

Obs. — Hence the semicolon is frequently placed before and, but, 
for, though, yet, nor, nay, hence, therefore, or a similar connective, 
when this unites two clauses that are rather long, and make but one 
sentence : and it is also frequently placed before an appositive phrase 
that is subdivided by the comma. 

8. The Colon (:) is used as an intermediate point be- 
tween the semicolon and the period. 

Ex. — " I have not room to illustrate these rules fully : let them 
be remembered ; and they will exemplify themselves, with expe- 
rience and practice." " Do not expect perfect happiness in this life : 
there is no such thing on earth." The colon, in this sense, is fre- 
quently used instead of a semicolon and conjunction; as, "Do not 
expect perfect happiness in this life ; for there is no such thing on 
earth." " The Bible gives us a beautiful description of the Deity, in 
these words : ' God is love V" " Terms : Three Dollars a year, in- 
variably in advance ." "Mr. Evarts then rose, and delivered the 
following address : — v 

1 Ladies and Gentlemen : 

' It is now just ten years since/ " etc., etc. 

9. The Apostrophe ( ? ) is used to denote the omission 
of one or more letters of a word. Ex. : His, for it is; 
tho\ for though; calVd, for called. It is also used as the 
sign of the possessive case of nouns. 



PART II. 



LESSON I. 
DEFINITIONS. 

1. Grammar is the science which teaches how to 
speak and write correctly. 

2. English Grammar is the science which teaches 
how to speak and write the English language cor- 
rectly. 

3. Language may be divided into ivords and sen- 
tences ; and grammar, accordingly, treats of words and 
sentences. 

4. The basis of grammar, or the test of correctness 
in the use of language, is tlie usage of the best writers 
and speakers. 

5. English Grammar is divided into five parts: 
Pronunciation, Orthography, EtymoVogy, Syntax, and 
Prosody. 

6. Pronunciation treats of the sounds and classifi- 
cation of letters, and of the sounds and stress of sylla- 
bles in uttering separate words. 

7. Orthography treats of the forms of letters, and 
teaches how to spell words correctly. 

8. Etymology treats of the derivation, classes, and 
properties of words. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement 
of words in sentences. 

10. Prosody treats of figures, versification, utter- 
ance, and punctuation. 

Etymology and Syntax comprise nearly all that is 
required in an elementary text-book on English 
Grammar. 



LESSON II. 

DEFINITIONS. 

11. A Subject is a word or expression denoting 
that of which something is said. 

12. A Predicate is a word or expression denoting 
what is said of the subject. 

13. A Proposition or statement is a subject com- 
bined with its predicate. 

14. A Sentence is a combination of words making 
complete sense. A sentence is a thought expressed 
in words, and must contain a subject and predicate. 

15. A Phrase is two or more words properly put 
together, but not making a proposition. 

16. A Clause is a proposition that makes but a 
part of a sentence. 

17. Sentences, with regard to their manner of 
predication, are divided into three classes : 

Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative, 



DEFINITIONS. 57 

18. Sentences, with regard to their form, are 
divided into three classes : 

Simple, Complex, and Compound* 

19. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that contains 
but one proposition* 

20. An Adjunct is a word, phrase, or clause, used 
to modify any word in the sentence. 

Ex.— A wave of salt water swept over the vessel. 
The river rises in the mountains. 
He was a man more sinned against than sinning. 
I have found the sheep which was lost. 

Supply proper adjuncts: 

The fox leaped -. The trees 



are growing. 

He gave the picture 

We started , 

We reached the village 



The trees are bending 



21. An Attribute is an adjective or explanatory 
term, relating to the subject, that completes the 
predicate. 

Ex. — He was fortunate. He seemed to be sleeping. 
The apple is sweet. The Doctor is a hind-hearted man. 

22. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into 
the parts of which it is composed. 

The parts of a simple sentence are the subject, predicate, object, 
adjective adjuncts, adverbial adjuncts, connectives, and independent 
words. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON III. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Soldiers fight. Dogs bark. Bees were humming. 
Mary was chosen. We shall return. Clouds are gath- 
ering. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is 
soldiers, and the predicate is fight. 

Dogs bite strangers. Wolves catch lambs. Merchants 
sell goods. I shall see him. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is 
dogs. The entire predicate is bite strangers. The predicate-verb is 
bite, which is limited by its object strangers. 

The vessel was wrecked. She wrote a good composi- 
tion. Tall and beautiful poplars fringe the river. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire sub- 
ject is the vessel ; the subject-nominative is vessel, which is modified 
by the article the. Was wrecked is the predicate. 

23. The subject-nominative is the noun or pronoun 
which is the subject of the verb. 

Nominative means naming. 

24+ Adjuncts are adverbial when they express time, 
place, degree, or manner. 

Adjuncts Added to the Predicate -Verb. 

The mountain is clothed with evergreens. The wind 
glided over the grass. Our troubles are aggravated by 
imaginary evils. My cousin went to your house, \ at 
noon, \ in a carriage. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is 



ANALYSIS. 59 

the mountain ; the subject-nominative is mountain, which is modi- 
tied by the article the. Is clothed with evergreens is the predicate ; is 
clothed is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adverbial 
adjunct with evergreens. 

25. Adjuncts are adjective when they describe or 
limit nouns or pronouns. 

Adjuncts Added to the Subject or the Object. 

A wreath of rosebuds encircled her head. She brought 
a basket of fruit. The old oak is loaded with a flock \ of 
singing blackbirds. The path throiigh the tvoods is cool 
and pleasant. 

The thrush had sung his evening song. 

Bummer clouds brought pleasant showers. 

The better part of valor is discretion. 

Here we saw groves of ancient trees. 

Here were cottages emboivered in the shade. 

Have you read the adventures of Robinson Crusoe? 

The preservation of liberty depends upon the education 
of our people. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire 
subject is a wreath of rosebuds ; the subject-nominative is wreath, 
which is modified by the article a and the adjective adjunct of rose- 
duds. Encircled her head is the entire predicate ; encircled is the 
predicate-verb, which is modified by the object head, and head is 
modified by the possessive her. 

Write ten sentences, each of which shall contain an 
adjective and an adverbial adjunct. Underscore the ad- 
jective adjunct with one line, the adverbial with two. 

Ex. — The trees of the forest are bending before the 
wintry wind. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON IV. 
SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

26. A participial phrase is one that begins with a 
participle. 

27* Absolute means absolved from, or cut off. A 
phrase is absolute when it is not dependent on the 
rest of the sentence. 

28. An infinitive phrase is one that begins with an 
infinitive verb. 

29. Participial, absolute, and infinitive phrases may 
have the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Simple Sentences with Participial or Absolute Phrases* 

They fled, pursued by our cavalry. 
The money being furnished, he purchased the estate. 
Note. — The absolute phrase relates to purchased, and modifies it. 

Meanwhile the neighboring fields, trampled and beaten 
down, become barren and dry, affording nothing but 
clouds of dust. 

The poor fellow, baffled so often, became at last dis- 
heartened. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is 
the poor fellow baffled so often ; the subject-nominative is fellow, 
which is modified by the article the, the adjective poor, and the 
participial phrase baffled so often. Became at last disheartened is 
the entire predicate ; became is the predicate-verb, which is modified 
by the adverbial adjunct at last, and the attribute disheartened s 
which relates to the subject fellow. 

Simple Sentences with Infiniiive Phrases. 

I went to the river to find a skiff. 

A path to guide us could not be found. 



ANALYSIS. 61 

To protect persons and property is the duty of govern- 
ment. 

It is the duty of government to protect persons and 
property. 

The best way to thrive is to keep out of debt. 

She has learned to do nothing but dress and visit. 

He is very well able to bear the loss. 

The rain makes the grass grow rapidly. 

Analysts. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is 
I; the predicate is went to the river to find a skiff. The predicate- 
verb is went, which is modified by the adverbial adjunct to the river, 
and the infinitive phrase to find a skiff. River is modified by the 
article the, and is the object of the preposition to. To shows the re- 
lation of river to went. To find is an infinitive verb, which relates 
to /, and depends upon went. Skiff is a noun, modified by a, and is 
the object of to find. 

Supply the proper infinitive phrases : 

Your lessons are . 

We are glad . 

In Summer it is pleasant under some shady 

tree and to the hum of insects. 

I must request you -. 



It is the duty of children 

Let us learn — and 



• Simple Sentences with Compound Subjects. 

There health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 
Around the post hung helmets, swords, and spears. 

"The breezy call of incense-breathing Morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence, with a com- 
pound subject. The subject-nominatives are health and plenty, con- 
nected by and. Cheered the laboring main is the entire predicate ; 
cheered is the predicate- verb, which is modified by the object swain ; 
and swain is modified by the article the and the participial adjective 
laboring. 

Simple Sentences with Compound Predicates. 

" Hope, like the gleaming taper's Light, adorns and cheers 
the way." 

" He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, 
Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way." 
Here and there a lark, scared from his feeding-place in 

the grass, soars up, bubbling forth his melody in globules 

of silvery sound, and settles upon some tall tree, and waves 

his wings, and sings to the swaying twigs. 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence, with a com- 
pound predicate. The entire subject is hope, like the gleaming 
taper's light; the subject-nominative is hope, which is modified by 
the adjective phrase (adjunct) like the gleaming taper's light. The 
entire predicate is adorns and cheers the way ; the predicate -verbs 
are adorns and cheers, connected by and, and modified by the object 
way. Like is an adjective, relating to hope, and modified by the ad- 
verbial adjunct (to) the gleaming taper's light. Light is a noun, and 
is modified by the article the, the participial adjective gleaming, and 
the possessive taper's. 

Write five sentences, each of ivliich shall contain a com- 
pound subject; and five, each of which shall contain a 
compound predicate. 

Ex. — James, Thomas, and Henry went on a fishing ex- 
cursion down the bay on last Saturday. 

Some trees bud and blossom in May. 



ANALYSIS. 63 



LESSON V.. 

30. A Complex Sentence is a sentence that has 
but one independent or principal clause, with one or 
more dependent clauses. 

31. A sentence that consists of two clauses, of 
which one is used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, 
or an adverb, is complex. 

Nominative Clauses. 

That the soul is immortal, is believed by all nations. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the subject is a 
dependent clause. TJmt the soul is immortal, is the principal sub- 
ject ; and is believed by all nations, is the principal predicate. Is be- 
lieved is the predicate-verb ; and it is modified by the adverbial 
adjunct by all nations. That is the connective, showing the depend- 
ence of the subordinate clause on something else. The subject of 
the dependent clause is the soul, the predicate is is immortal. 

Wliy he did not go, is obvious. 

Whether he can finish the work, is doubtful. 

How an acorn becomes an oalc, is a mystery. 

Where Warren fell, is not precisely known. 

By what means he succeeded, has never been explained. 

Objective Clauses. 

All nations believe that the soul is immortal. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, of which the object is a 
dependent clause. All nations is the principal subject ; nations is 
the subject-nominative, modified by all. Believe that the soul is im< 
mortal, is the entire principal predicate ; believe is the predicate-verb, 
and it is limited by the objective clause that the soul is immortal. 

You now see why he did not go. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

No one knows when JEneas landed in Italy. 
I have never ascertained by what means he succeeded. 
He said, " How can I ever forget your favors to me ?" 
The laws, he thought, should be more rigidly enforced. 

Predicate Explanatory Clauses. 

The universal belief is, that the soul is immortal. 
This is a complex declarative sentence, into which a dependent 
clause is incorporated as a predicate-nominative, explanatory of the 
subject. (Analyze the principal subject.) Is that the soul is im- 
mortal, is the principal predicate ; is is the predicate -verb, and it is 
combined with the predicate clause after it, which is explanatory of 
the subject. 

The only wonder is, that one head can contain it all. 
The cause of anxiety was, why he did not write. 
One of the greatest mysteries is, koto an acorn becomes 
an oak. 

Write ten complex sentences, containing a nominative, 
objective, or predicate clause, and underscore the nomina- 
tive clauses with one line, the objective with ttvo, and the 
predicate clauses with three lines. 

Ex. 1. — That you have studied hard is very evident. 

Ex. 2. — You have learned that labor conquers all 
difficulties. 

Ex.3. — One thought should always be with us: 
How can I best perform this duty? 



ANALYSIS. 65 



LESSON VI. 
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

The following sentences are complex, because each has 
a clause that is used as an adjective, and is therefore de- 
pendent. 

Relative Clauses with Expressed Antecedents. 

The man who escapes censure^ fortunate. 
This is a complex declarative sentence, with a dependent clause 
used as an adjective. The entire principal subject is, the man who 
escapes censure; the subject-nominative is man, and it is modified 
by the article the and the relative clause who escapes censure. Is 
fortunate is the principal predicate. Is is the predicate-verb ; and 
it is combined with the predicate adjective fortunate, an attribute 
of the subject. Who joins the dependent clause to man, and is also 
the subject of the dependent clause. Escapes censure is the predi- 
cate ; escapes is the predicate- verb, and it is modified by its object 
censure. 

He who is intelligent, will be intelligible. 

Mary has brought a beautiful rose, which greiv in the 
garden. 

The man whose conscience is pure, needs fear no accu- 
sation. 

They met with such disasters as reduced them to poverty. 

Who that loves independence would ever become a poli- 
tician ? 

Yonder is the plain on which the tattle ivas fought. 

The man on whose fidelity I relied most, was absent. 

He owned several lots, from the sale of which he became 
rich. 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



There never yet were hearts or skies, clouds might not 
wander through. 

That is, " through which clouds might not wander." 

Adverbs of Time, 

When the sun rises, the birds begin to sing. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. The birds begin to sing s 
is the principal clause. (Analyze it.) When the sun rises, is the 
dependent clause, modifying the predicate of the principal clause in 
the sense of an adverb of time. When is a conjunctive adverb, con- 
necting the two clauses. 

While the robbers were plundering, she set fire to the 
house. 

He locked the door after the horse was stolen. 

Before reinforcements could be sent, the battle was lost. 

He has become a citizen of this place since you tvere 
here. 

I will take care of your horse until you return. 

As we approached the top of the hill, we saw the Indians. 

Adverbs of Place. 

We sowed the seed ivhere the soil was moist and loamy. 
Where the soil was moist and loamy, is the dependent clause, 
modifying sowed in the sense of an adverb of place. 
He will be respected ivherever he may be. 
Wherever we went, the country was well cultivated. 

Adverbs of Manner* 

Forgive us as we forgive our enemies. 

This is a complex imperative sentence. Forgive {thou) us, is the 
principal clause. As we forgive our enemies, is a dependent clause oi 
manner, modifying forgive. 

As he understands it, so he talks about it. 

As blossoms in spring, so are hopes in youth. 



ANALYSIS. 67 

You will please to speak so that we can hear you. 
The dependent clause is explanatory of so, and so expresses man- 
ner; but the clause also implies consequence. 

Degree or Extent* 

I am as tall as he. 
This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, 
I am as tall. The dependent clause is as he (is tall), which is an ad- 
verbial clause, modifying in an explanatory or limiting sense the 
phrase as tall, or more directly the adverb as. It determines the 
degree. 

Cause, Purpose, Doubt, Concession, etc. 

The connectives in the following sentences are subor- 
dinate conjunctions. 

The corn will grow because it rained last night. 
This is a complex declarative sentence. The principal clause is, 
the corn icill grow ; the dependent clause is the conjunctive clause 
because it rained last night, which is used adverbially, to modify will 
grow, of the principal clause, by showing why. 

The corn will grow, since the soil has been enriched. 
As he is quite young yet, he should rather go to school. 
Why? 

I will not sell the horse, for I cannot spare him. 

Write five complex sentences, containing adjective 
clauses, and five containing adverbial clauses; under- 
scoring adjective clauses with one line, adverbial clauses 
with two. 

Ex. 1. — The roses which grow wild are not fragrant. 

Ex. 2. — While we sleep, nature repairs the waste that 

action has caused. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON VII. 
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

32. A Compound Sentence is a sentence that has 
two or more independent clauses. 

1. A sentence that consists of two clauses, connected 
by a co-ordinate conjunction, is compound. 

Ex. — The way was long, and the wind was cold. 

2. A sentence consisting of two clauses that have no 
connective, is generally compound. 

Ex. — Some ran into the woods; others plunged into the 
river. 

33. A compound sentence may consist : 

1. Of two or more simple sentences. 

Ex. — Life is short, | and art is long. 
" The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea ; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me." — Grat. 

2. Of two or more complex sentences. 

" He lived as mothers wish their sons to live ; 
He died as fathers wish their sons to die." — Halleck. 

"What in me is dark, illumine ; what is low, raise and 
support." 

"The character of General Washington, which his 
contemporaries reverence and admire, will be transmitted 
to posterity; and the memory of his virtues, while 



ANALYSIS. 69 

patriotism and virtue are held sacred among men, will 
remain undiminished." 

3. Of two or more compound sentences. 

Ex. — " Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is wealth, 
tact is ready money. " 

"There's the marble, there's the chisel; 
Take them, work them to thy will: 
Thou alone must shape thy future, — 
Heaven give thee strength and skill." 
A compound sentence, consisting of two members ; and the first 
member, of two compound clauses. 

4. Of a mixture of simple, complex, and compound sen- 
tences. 

Ex. — "Life is short, and art is long; therefore it is al- 
most impossible to reach perfection in anything." — Goethe. 
"Though the world smile on you blandly, 
Let your friends be choice and few; 
Choose your course, pursue it grandly, 
And achieve what you pursue." — Kead. 

A compound sentence, consisting of two members ; and the 
second member, of two simple clauses and a complex clause. 

Write five compound sentences of each of the first three 
hinds. 

Ex. 1. — Birds fly in the air and fishes swim in the water. 

Ex. 2. — We gathered the fruit that was ripest, and they 
gathered the flowers that were the most fragrant. 

Ex. 3. — I will gather leaves and you may gather flowers ; 
the leaves will be for a wreath and the flowers for a bouquet. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON VIII. 
REVIEW. 

1. What is English Grammar ? 

2. What is the test of correctness in the use of 
language ? 

3. How is English Grammar divided? 

4. What is Etymology ? 

5. What is Syntax ? 

6. What is a subject? 

7. What is a predicate ? 

8. What is a proposition? 

9. What is a sentence ? 

10. What is a phrase ? 

11. What is a clause? 

12. How are sentences divided with regard to their 
manner of predication ? 

13. How are sentences divided with regard to theii 
form? 

14. What is a simple sentence ? 

15. What is an adjunct ? 

16. What is an attribute ? 

17. What is analysis ? 

18. What is the subject-nominative ? 

19. When are adjuncts adverbial? 

20. When are adjuncts adjective? 

21. What is a participial phrase? 

22. What is an absolute phrase? 



REVIEW. 71 

23. What is an infinitive phrase ? 

24. In what sense may participial, absolute and 
infinitive phrases be used ? 

25. What is a complex sentence ? 

26. What is said of a sentence that consists of two 
clauses, one of which is used in the sense of a noun, 
an adjective, or an adverb ? 

27. What is a compound sentence ? 

Change each set of the following statements into one 
sentence : 

1. There is a book. I found it on the ground. It be- 
longs to Master Smith. 

2. John caught a fish. He caught it with a hook. It 
was a shark. 

3. It was a white rose. Hattie plucked it. It grew in 
the garden. 

4. I saw the exhibition. I saw it yesterday. I wrote a 
sketch of it. 

5. A curly-headed boy was playing in the street. Two 
men drove by in a wagon. They carried the boy off. He 
was Charlie Ross. 

6. A fire broke out. It was on Twenty-third street. It 
was about seren o'clock in the evening. It burnt many 
houses. It was on February 17th. 

7. Queen Margaret fled. She was the wife of Henry 
VI. She fled after a great defeat. It was a defeat in one 
of the wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster. 
She fled with her son. She fled into a forest. 

Write a letter of introduction for some friend to your 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



teacher ; put it in an envelope and direct properly, 
Model : 



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Analyze the sentences in the foregoing letter ; mention 
all the parts of speech^ and their relations. 



Nomvs. 73 

LESSON IX. 

PARTS OF SPEECH AND THEIR PROPERTIES. 

NOUNS. 

34. A Noun is the name of anything. 

35. Nouns are divided into two classes : proper and 
common. Common nouns include, as a part of their 
number, collective nouns, abstract nouns, and verbal 
nouns, 

36. A Proper Noun is a name that distinguishes a 
particular one from the rest of a class. 

Ex.— Mary, Henry, Boston, Connecticut; the Iliad. 
Mary is a proper noun, because it is a name that dis- 
tinguishes a particular girl or woman from others. 

37. A Common Noun is a name common to all of 
the same kind or class. 

Ex. — Girl, boy, city, river, mountain, man, horse. 

Girl is a common noun, because it is a name that is 
common, or can be applied, to any one of a certain class 
of females. 

38. A common noun, used as a particular name, be- 
comes a proper noun. 

Ex. — "Come, gentle Spring" "The Park." 

39. A Collective Noun is a name that denotes, in 
the singular form, more than one object of the same 
kind. 

Ex. — Family, army, swarm, class, congregation. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

40. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, 

a state, or an action. 

Abstract means drawn from. The words goodness, virtue, hope, 
wisdom, motion, rest, peace, and industry, are abstract nouns; be- 
cause they are not the names of objects that exist by themselves, 
but the names of qualities, actions, or states, belonging to objects. 

41. A Verbal Noun is a participle or an infinitive 
used as a noun. Verbal nouns belong to abstract 
nouns. 

Ex. — "To climb is generally difficult." "The boy- 
hurt himself by wrestling." 

Mention the nouns in the following sentences; the 
general and particular class of each ; and why : 

We read in our morning papers the events that tran- 
spired yesterday in the streets and assemblies of England, 
France, and Germany, and almost forget that three thou- 
sand miles of ocean separate us from Europe. 

The jolting of the cars and the shrieking of the steam 
whistle filled us with a vague dread of coming evil. 

Write five sentences, each of ivhich shall contain one 
or more proper nouns, fate which shall contain one or more 
abstract nouns, and fcug which shall contain a verbal or 
participial noun. 

Ex 1. — John and Henry were studious pupils. 

Ex. 2. — Beauty and goodness are not always found in 
the same individual. 

Ex. 3. — To write is easy, but to write well requires 
careful study and continual practice. 

Eunning is a healthful exercise. 



PRONOUNS. 75 

LESSON X. 
PRONOUNS. 

42. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

43. The word, phrase , or clause, which a pronoun 
represents, is called its antecedent. 

Ex. — "James saw his mistake." James is the ante- 
cedent of h is. ' ' He who is well, underval ues health. " He 
is the antecedent of who. "I wished to call him back; 
but it was impossible." "He sold Ms farm ; and now he 
regrets UP Sometimes the antecedent folloivs the pro- 
noun; as, "And there her brood the partridge led." — 
Bryakt. 

44. Pronouns are divided into three classes : per- 
soiled, relative, and interrogative. 

45. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that, by its 
form, distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, 
and the person or thing spoken of. 

Ex. — "I saw you and himP I means the speaker; 
you, the person spoken to ; and him, the person spoken 
of. 

46. The personal pronouns are i", thou or you, he, 
she i and it, with their variations. 

47. TJiou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, are ancient 
and solemn forms. 

48. You, your, yours and yourself, are now pre- 
ferred in common usage to thou, thy, thine, thee, &c. 

49. Ours, yours, hers, theirs, and generally mine and 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

thine, are respectively equivalent to our, your, her, 
their, and the name of the object possessed. 

Ex. — "He ate his apple, you ate yours [your apple], 
and I ate mine" [my apple]. Yours is not governed by a 
noun understood, for the noun could not be put after it: 
but it is equivalent to your and a noun. 

These words may be parsed as possessives which represent both 
the possessor and the object. 

50. It is sometimes used indefinitely, to indicate the 
state or condition of things. 

Ex. — It rains. It thunders. It is 12 o'clock. 

"'T was moonlight on the Persian Sea." — Mooke. 

51. It sometimes introduces a sentence, and is ex- 
plained by a following word, phrase, or clause, which 
is the real subject. 

Ex. — It is he. It is she. It was they. It is mean to 
take advantage of another's distress. It is perfectly plain 
that a straight line must be the shortest distance between 
two points. 

It y in aU the foregoing examples, has no antecedent. 

52. A Compound Personal Pronoun is a word con- 
sisting, in the singular number, of my, thy, your, him, l 
her, or it, compounded with self; in the plural, of our, 
your, or them, compounded with selves. 

Ex. — Myself, yourself, himself; ourselves, yourselves, 
themselves. 

Write ten sentences, each of which shall contain a per- 
sonal pronoun, and five, each of which shall contain a 



PRONOUNS. 77 

compound personal pronoun. Underscore as in the ex- 
amples : 

Ex. — Mary and I saw our teacher just as she was 
coming out of her house. 

You injure y ourselve s more than your teacher by 
neglecting your lessons. 



LESSON XI. 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

53. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that gener- 
ally relates to an antecedent word or expression, and 
joins to it a descriptive clause. 

Ex. — " The fur which warms the monarch, warmed a 
bear." 

"Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." — 
Young. 

u Spirit that breathest through my lattice." — Bryant. 

Which means the fur ; and which warms the monarch, tells what 
fur. 

Who relates to they ; and its clause describes the persons meant 
by they. 

54. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, tliat, 
and as, with their compounds. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

55. Who is applied to persons, and to other objects 
when regarded as persons. 

Ex. — " The man who feels truly noble, will become so." 
— Chapln". 

" Now a faint tick was heard below, from the Pendu- 
lum, ivlio thus spoke."— Jaiste Taylor. 

56. Which is applied to things, and to all animals 
inferior to man. 

Ex. — The rose which; the horse which; the army 
which. 

A group of persons, regarded as one whole, and denoted 
by a collective noun, becomes a thing, and who should not 
be applied to it ; as, " He instructed and fed the crowds 
which [not ivho] surrounded him." 

57. What is used in place of the thing which or the 
things ivhich, and has no antecedent. 

Ex. — I will take what (the thing ivhich) you send. 
He told me what was said. 
Note. — Whatis used as the object of take, and also of send. 

' 58. That is applied to persons, animals and things, 
and is preferred to who and which : 

1. When the antecedent denotes both persons and 
things. 

Ex. — The ship and passengers that were lost at sea. 

2. After the superlative degree, when the sense is 
restrictive. 

Ex. — This is the hardest lesson that we have yet had. 



PROXOUXS. 79 

3. After who used as an antecedent. 

Ex. — Who that respects himself would tell a lie ? 

4. After same. 

Ex. — It is the same star that we saw last night. 

5. Generally, after no, all, any, each, every, some, or very. 
Ex. — "All that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave." — 

Gray. 

' 59. Which and that have no possessive form of their 
own; and hence they sometimes borrow whose, the 
possessive of who. 

Ex. — "The undiscovered country, from whose bourn 
[from the boundary of which] no traveler returns/' — 
Shakespeare. 

60. As is a relative pronoun when it follows such, 
many, or same, and relates to the objects thus speci- 
fied. 

Ex. — He has such friends as every one should wish to 
have. 

As is also generally a relative pronoun after as much. 
Ex. — He owned as much land as he could till. 

61. A relative clause is an explanatory clause, in- 
troduced by a relative pronoun, or a preposition and 
relative. 

Ex. — " He that fights and runs away, 
May live to fight another day." 

The relative clause that fights and runs away, describes lie ; it 
tells who is meant. 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Write five complex sentences, with relative clauses intro- 
duced by who, Jive with relative clauses introduced by 
which, and five with relative clauses introduced by that. 

Ex. 1. — The men who are the most frugal in youth, are 
generally the most wealthy in old age. 

Ex. 2. — The crops which were harvested in the West 
last Summer, were abundant. 

Ex. 3. — He was the same person that I saw on the 
platform. 



LESSON XII. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE AND INTERROG- 
ATIVE PRONOUNS. 

62. A Compound Relative Pronoun is who, which, 
or what, with ever or soever annexed to it. 

Ex. — I will take whatever you send. 

A compound relative pronoun is generally a little more emphatic 
or comprehensive than the simple one ; and it dispenses with the 
antecedent when this is indefinite. 

The compound relatives are generally equivalent to two 
words. 

Ex. — " WJioever [he tvho] cares not for others, should 
not expect their favors/' " The Gaul offered his own head 
to whoever [any person tvho] would bring him that of 
Nero."— Gibbon. 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence, with the de- 
pendent clause used as the subject of the sentence. Should not ex- 



PRONOUNS. 81 

pect their favors is the entire predicate. Should expect is the predi- 
cate-verb; it is modified by the adverb not and the objective phrase 
their favors. Whoever is the subject of the dependent clause; 
cares not for others is the predicate. Cares is the predicate- verb ; it 
is modified by the adverb not and the adverbial adjunct for others. 
In parsing the compound relatives, the pupil may parse the equiva- 
lent words separately. 

Analyze the following sentences ; tell the parts of speech 
and their relations to other words : 

I cannot hear what you are saying. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, in which the dependent 
clause is used as the object. 

He learned what was taught in the schools. 
Whoever would be learned must be studious. 
Whatever you do, do with your might. 
Take whichever you prefer. 

63. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun ased 
to ask a question. 

Ex. — Wlio came with you ? Which is he ? 

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedents ; but the noun or pro- 
noun which is given in answer to the interrogative pronoun, is 
sometimes called the subsequent ; as, " Who came with you ?— 
John. " 

"An interrogative pronoun is a relative in search of an ante- 
cedent. " — Phil. Museum . 

64. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what, with their declined forms. 

All these pronouns can be applied to either persons or 
things, except who, which is applicable to persons only. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex.— Who is he ? Who was William Pitt ? 
Whom do you seek ? Which is yours ? 

Analysis. — He is the subject; is who is the predicate; is, the 
predicate-verb, is modified by the attribute who. 

Note. — In interrogative sentences the terms are usually trans* 
Tipsed. 

Correct the following sentences, and tell why : 

" The son of Esrom, which was the son of Seth." 

The lion who killed the man was shot the next day. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. 

Was it the wind or you who shut the door ? 

This is the most beautiful scene which can be found. 

Write five sentences, each of which shall contain a com- 
pound relative pronoun ; also five ivhich shall contain an 
interrogative pronoun. 



LESSON XIII. 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the parts of speech. 

2. What is a noun ? 

3. Into what general classes are nouns divided? 

4. What classes of common nouns are there? 

5. What is a proper noun ? 

6. What is a common noun? 

7. What is a collective noun? 

8. What is an abstract noun? 

9. What is a verbal noun ? 



BE VIEW. 83 

10. What is a pronoun ? 

11. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 

12. Into what classes are pronouns divided ? 

13. What is a personal pronoun? 

14. Which are the personal pronouns? 

15. What are the ancient and solemn forms of you. 
} our, yours, and yourself ? 

16. What is said regarding ours, yours, hers, theirs, 
mine, and thine ? 

17. What pronoun is sometimes used indefinitely? 

18. What is a compound personal pronoun ? 

19. What is a relative pronoun ? 

20. Which are the relative pronouns? 

21. To what is who applied? 

22. To what is lohich applied? 

23. What is said of what ? 
24 To what is that applied? 

25. Mention some cases in which that is preferred to 
who or ivhich. 

26. Which of the relative pronouns have no posses- 
sive form of their own ? 

27. When is as a relative pronoun ? 

28. What is a relative clause ? 

29. Give an example. 

30. What is a compound relative pronoun ? 

31. Give an example. 

32. What is an interrogative pronoun? 

33. Which are the interrogative pronouns ? 

34. Give an interrogative sentence. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XIV. 

GENDER. 
PROPERTIES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

65. Nouns and Pronouns have gender, person, num* 
her, and case. 

66. Gender is that property of nouns and pro- 
nouns which distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 

67. There are four genders : the masculine, the 
feminine, the common, and the neuter. 

68. A noun or pronoun is of the masculine gender 
when it denotes a male. Boy. 

69. A noun or pronoun is of the feminine gender 
when it denotes a female. Girl. 

70. A noun or pronoun is of the common gender 
when it denotes either a male or a female. Child. 

71. A noun or pronoun is of the neuter gender when 
it denotes neither a male nor a female. Book. 

The sex of an object denoted by a word of the common gender 
sometimes becomes more definitely known from some other word, 
and the words should then be parsed accordingly; as, " The child 
and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine, as 
shown by his. 

72. A noun, masculine or feminine in form, is some- 
times applied to both sexes. 

Ex. — We saw geese and ducks. 

73. "When an antecedent noun may be of either sex, 



GENDER AND PERSON. 85 

the masculine pronoun is generally preferred to the 
feminine, or is used for both. 

Ex. — Every person should try to improve his mind. 

74. There are three ways of distinguishing genders : 

1. By different words. 

Ex. — Brother, sister, sir, madam. 

2. By different endings. 

Ex. — Abbot, abbess. Waiter, waitress. Executor, ex- 
ecutrix. Duke, duchess. 

3. By joining some distinguishing word. 

Ex. — Jfa^-servant, ?/?a£rf-servant. i?0-bear, sZ^-bear. 

Change the folloiving masculine nouns to their corre- 
sponding feminine forms : 

Baron, giant, shepherd, author, sorcerer, benefactor, 
hunter, editor, songster, tiger, votary, tutor, hero, sultan, 
landlord. 

Tell the gender, and ivhy : 

Word, spirit, game, clergy, party, nations, widow, 
bachelor, John, Francis, Frances, I, her, them. 

75. Person is that property of words which shows 
whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, 
or the person or thing spoken of. 

76. There are three persons : the first, the second^ 
and the third. 

77. A noun or pronoun is of the first person when it 
denotes the speaker. " /, Paid, have written it." 

78. A noun or pronoun is of the second person when 



86 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



it denotes the person spoken to. "Paul, thou hast 
written it." 

79* A noun or pronoun is of the third person when 
it denotes the person or thing spoken of. " Paul has 
written it.' 9 

80. The third person is sometimes elegantly used 
for the first or second. 

Ex. — "The king is always willing to listen to the just 
complaints of his subjects;" for, "I am always willing," 
etc. 

When inanimate objects are addressed, they are per- 
sonified, or regarded as persons; as, "0 Liberty! 
what crimes are committed in thy name!" — Madame 
Kolakd. 

When a noun comes after a verb and explains the nom- 
inative, it is of the third person, though the nominative 
may be of the first or second person; as, "I am the 
sheriff" (I am he.) "You are heroes." 

Mention the nouns and pronouns ; tell of what person 
and gender, and why : 

You will find that many evils beset us mortals. 
I said to him, "Well, my little friend, how fare the 
little school-boys ?" 

" Give me again my hollow tree, 
A crust of bread and liberty." 
Wisdom is a greater treasure than riches. 
James was with me a moment before you came. 
Promises may get friends, but it is performance that 
keeps them. 



NUMBER. 87 

LESSON XV. 
NUMBER. 

81. Number is that property of words, which shows 
whether one object is meant or more than one. 

82. There are two numbers: the singular and the 
plural. 

83. The singular number denotes one ; 

84. The plural number denotes more than one. 

85. The plural number of nouns is generally formed 
by adding s or es to the singular. 

Ex. — Boy, boys, pen, pens, horse, horses. 

86. When a vowel precedes final o or y, s only is 
added to form the plural. 

Ex. — Money, moneys, monkey, monkeys, folio, folios. 

87. When a consonant precedes final i, o, u, or y, 
the plural is formed by adding es (change y into i). 

Ex. — Alkali, alkalies; negro, negroes; gnu, gnues; 
story, stories. 

88. Some nouns form their plurals by changing 
final / or fe to ves. 

Ex. — Beef, beeves; half, halves; sheaf, sheaves; wolf, 
wolves. 

89. Number is also expressed by the use of different 
words. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Man, men; mouse, mice; I, we; he, they; this, 
these; that, those. 

90. Letters, figures, and other characters, are made 
plural by annexing '$. 

Ex. — "The a's and n's in the first line." "By ffs and 
7's." " Cross your tfs and dot your iV The apostrophe 
is used to prevent ambiguity. 

91. When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr., is used with a 
name, the whole term is made plural by making plural 
the title only. 

Ex. — Mr. Harper, Messrs. Harper; Miss Brown, the 
Misses Brown ; Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee ; Messrs. John and 
James Morton ; Misses Julia and Alice Clark. 

92. When the title is Mrs., or when the word two, 
three, etc., stands before the title, the latter noun is 
made plural. 

Ex.— "The Mrs. Barlows."— Ikying. "The two Miss 
Scotts had been gathering flowers." — Id. 

93. Words adopted from other languages usually 

retain their foreign plurals in our language* Some, 

however, take the English plural only* 

No certain rule can be given for forming such plurals, but the fol 
lowing rules may be of some assistance. 

1. The ending a is changed to ce or ata. 

2. The ending us is changed to i. 

3. The ending urn or on is changed to a. 

4. The ending is is changed to es or ides. 

5. The ending x or ex is changed to ces or ices. 



CASES. 89 

Ex. — Alumna-93 ; alumnus, alumni ; radius, radii ; 
arcanum, arcana; basis, bases ; crisis, crises; chrysalis, 
chrysalides; appendix, appendices; index, indices; vor- 
tex, vortices. 

Write the plural of the folloioing words: 

Sofa, larva, house, mouse, feather-bed, booth, tooth, ox, 
box, root, foot, turf, wolf, genius, isthmus, trio, cargo, 
valley, Tully, alley, ally, trellis, ellipsis, Mr. Jones, Mrs. 
Jones. 



LESSON XVI. 
CASES. 

94. Case is that property of nouns and pronouns 
which shows how they are Used in the construction of 
sentences. 

95. There are three cases : the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

96. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case 
when it is the subject of a predicate-verb. 

That is, when an act or state is predicated of it. 

Ex. — "John struck James. " {Who struck James?) 

Rule.-«i noun or pronoun used as the subject 
of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. 

97. A noun or pronoun is also in the nominative 
case when it is used independently or absolutely. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

98. A noun or pronoun is said to be in the nomina- 
tive case independent : 

1. By direct address : "John, your father is here." 

2. By exclamation : " Alas, poor Yorich ! " 

3. By pleonasm or specification : " He that hath ears to 
bear let him hear:" "Webster's Dictionary'' 

99. A noun or pronoun is said to be in the nomina- 
tive case absolute when it is absolved (set free) from 
its nominative relation to a finite verb, but is joined 
with a participle or infinitive. 

Ex. — The house having been sold, we removed. 
To become a scholar requires exertion. 

Rule. — A noun or pronoun used independently 
or absolutely must be in the nominative case. 

100. A noun or pronoun used as an attribute is in 
the nominative case, and is said to be a predicate- 
nominative. 

Ex. — George Washington was the first President. 
Yonder building is the Court-House. 
" This mid, he formed thee, Adam ! thee, man, 
Dust of the ground, and in thy nostrils breath'd 
The breath of life."— Miltok. 

The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they ? 
u What war could ravish commerce could bestow, 
And he returned a friend who came a foe" 
" My dear Tibullus ! if that will not do, 
Let me be Horace and be Ovid you." 
He was not sure that it was /. 



CASES. 91 

LESSON XVII. 
THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

101. A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case 
when it denotes possession or ownership. 

102. The possessive case of nouns is formed by 
annexing to the noun an apostrophe (') and then the 
letter s. 

Ex. — Mary's slate. Burns's poems. Men's affairs. 
Dennis's work. Louis's reign. Charles's affairs. 

103. The possessive of plural nouns that end with s 
is formed by annexing an apostrophe only. 

Ex. — The soldiers' camp. The trustees' room. 

The possessive s is sometimes omitted from singular 
nouns that end with the sound of s. 

Ex.—" Xerxes' army." — Eollins. Jesus' feet. For 
goodness' sake. For conscience' sake. 

The meaning of the possessive case is sometimes more elegantly 
expressed by using of, or by making the possessive word an adjec- 
tive. 

" The death of Socrates " is a better expression than " Socrates's 
death"; and " Lucas Place" is quite as intelligible as "Lucas's 
Place." 

104 The two possessive forms of such words as deer 
and sheep are distinguished by placing the apostrophe 
before the s in the singular number, and after it ir 
the plural ; as, deer's, deers\ 

105. A compound or complex term takes the posses- 
sive sign but once ; generally at the end, or next to the 
name of what is owned. 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Ex. — The court-mar tiaTs decisions. 

"The Bishop of Landaff's residence." " Edivard 
Everett's oration." "At Hall, the baker's" Supply 
residence or store. 

106. A pair or series of nouns, implying common 
possession, takes the possessive sign at the end, and 
but once. 



Ex. — " Oakley and Mason's store 3 
Oakley and Mason. 



i. e. y the store of 



Rule.-ei noun or pronoun that limits the mean- 
ing of another noun by denoting possession, must 
be in the possessive case. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is said to be 
governed by the name of the thing possessed. 

Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural 
forms of the folloioing nouns : 

Poet, gentleman, lady, trustee, deacon, goose, brother, 
teacher, sheep, deer, monkey, canto, potato, fly, he, she, 
you, baby, peach. 



Singular. 
Poet, poet's ; 
Sheep, sheep's. 
Woman, woman's. 



Plural. 
Poets, poets'. 
Sheep, sheeps'. 
Women, women's. 



Write ten sentences, each of ivhich shall contain one of 
the above nouns in the possessive singular and also in the 
possessive plural. 

Ex. — The gentleman's umbrella stands in the gentle* 
men's saloon. 



CASES. 03 

LESSON VIII. 
THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

107. A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when 
it is the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. 

Transitive means passing over. A transitive verb generally de- 
notes an act that passes over from one person or thing to another ; 
as, strike. The object of a transitive verb or of a preposition is the 
noun or pronoun which completes its relation. 

Ex. — " The soldiers carried their bleeding companion to 
the river." (C&med^ivhom? to tuhat?) " Whom did you 
send to me ? " 

( 108. A noun or pronoun is also in the objective 
case when it is used in the sense of an adjunct. 

Ex. — "I do not care a straiv." Care not how much ? 
"The street is a mile long and sixty feet wide." Long and 
wide to what extent? "He went home." Went to what 
place ? 

Note. — A preposition may be understood before these nouns. 

Rule. — A noun or pronoun used as the object 
of a transitive verb must be in the objective case. 

K/ule* — A noun or pronoun used as the object 
of a preposition must be in the objective case. 

Parse the nouns in the folloioing lines, and give the 
rule for each particular case : 

" This was Hiawatha's wooing ; 
Thus it was he won the daughter 
Of the ancient arrow-maker, 
In the land of the Dacotahs." — Longfellow. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" My grandmamma has said — 
Poor old lady! she is dead 
Long ago — 

That he had a Eoman nose, 
And his cheek was like a rose 
In the snow." — 0. W. Holmes. 



LESSON XIX. 
SAME CASE. 

109. A noun or pronoun is generally in the same 
case as another, when it denotes the same person or 
thing. 

Ex.— Napoleon Bonaparte, the hero of France, was 
born in Corsica. 

Hero is an explanatory term, referring to Napoleon Bonaparte, 
and is therefore in the same case. 

110. When an intransitive or passive verb joins the 
two terms, the latter is said to be predicated of the 
other, and may be called a predicate-nominative or 
predicate-substantive. 

Ex. — He is Governor. (Predicate-nominative.) 

I know it to be him. (Predicate-substantive.) 

111. When no verb joins the terms, the latter term 
is said to be in apposition with the other, and is called 
an apposHtive. 

Ex. — They elected him President. 






CASES. 95 

Brown, himself, went. . 
We called at Smith's, the loohsellor. 

Note. — The terms in apposition sometimes differ in form, as in 
the last example. 

Rule. — Intransitive and passive verbs take the 
fame case after as before them, when both words 
refer to the same person or thing. 

Rule. — A noun or pronoun used to explain a 
preceding noun or pronoun, is put by apposition 
in the same case. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following sen- 
tences ; mention class, gender, person, number, and case ? 
a 7 x so give the appropriate rules : 

The wild rose bowed, and spoke alond: 
"For me is the wild bird singing, 
Soft and fair is the tender air 
That the gentle wind is bringing, 

And my lover, the bee, says oft to me, 
That of all the flowers growing, 

Not one holds up such a dainty cup, 
Such precious sweets bestowing." 
Correct the folloiuing examples of false syntax, and tell 
why they are incorrect : 

Him and me went to school together. 
Who do you want ? Who did you send for ? 
It was me. Is it him ? I knew that it was her. 
The man which we saw was the Governor of New York. 
We called at Smith's, the bookseller's. 
Write five sentences, each of which contain a predicate 
nominative, and five which shall contain an appositive. 



96 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XX. 
DECLENSIONS. 

112. The Declension of a noun or pronoun is a 
regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. 
Nouns are generally of the third person, and are thus 
declined : 



Singular Number. 


Plural Number. 


Worn. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Boy, 


boy's, 


boy; 


boys, 


boys', 


boys. 


Man, 


man's, 


man; 


men, 


men's, 


men. 


Lady, 


lady's, 


lady; 


ladies, 


ladies', 


ladies. 


Fox, 


fox's, 


fox; 


foxes, 


foxes', 


foxes. 






PRONOUNS. 








Singular. 






Plural. 




Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 






1st Person, 






1, 


my or mine, 


me; 


we, our or ours, 


us. 



2d Person, 

Thou, thy or thine, thee ; ye, your or yours, you. 

You, your or yours, you ; you, your or yours, you. 

3d Person, 

He, his, him ; They, their or theirs, them. 

She, her or hers, her; They, their or theirs, them, 

It, its, it; They, their or theirs, them. 

Nom. or Obj. Nom. or Obj. 

1st Person, Myself; ourselves. 

2d Person, Thyself or yourself ; yourselves. 
3d Person, Himself, herself, itself; themselves. 



DECLENSION. 9? 

Nbm. Poss. Obj. Norn. Poss. Obj. 

Who, whose, whom; who, whose, whom. 

Which, (whose,) which; which, (whose,) which. 

What, what; what, what 

That, (whose,) that; that, (whose,) that. 

As, as; as, as. 

The compound relatives are declined the same as the simple rela- 
tives. 

Rule. — A pronoun must agree with its ante- 
cedent in gender, -person, and number. 

Decline woman, city, I, you, he, she, it, John. 



LESSON XXI. 
REVIEW EXERCISES. 

Analyze the following sentences; parse the nouns and 
pronouns ; mention the gender, person, number, and case, 
and apply the rides : 

Captain Cook sailed round the world. We went to 
Boston. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. 

Youth, the morning of life, is often misspent. 

A herd of buffaloes crossed the prairies. 

The groves were God's first temples. 

There are lions and ostriches in Africa. 

The lady who had been sick, received the peaches 
which were ripe. 

This is the same marble that you gave me. Is this 
apple yours or mine ? 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



We bought only such mules as we needed. 

Who is perfect ? Whom did you see ? 

What you thoroughly understand, you can easily de- 
scribe. 

Whatsoever comes from the heart goes to the heart. 

I am the captain, sir. The storm having ceased, we 
resumed our journey. It ib probable that he will be 
elected. (What is probable ?) I know that you can learn. 

Analysis. — "I know that you can learn." This is a complex 
declarative sentence, in which the dependent clause is the object, 
The subject is i"; the predicate -verb is know, which is limited by 
the objective clause you can learn. You is the subject -nominative 
of the dependent clause, and can learn is the predicate- verb. That 
is a conjunction. / is a personal pronoun, first person, singular 
number, and nominative case to know. Rule. — A noun or pronoun, 
which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. 
You is a personal pronoun, common gender, second person, singular 
or plural number, and nominative case to can learn. Rule, &c. 
" Soldier rest ! thy warfare o'er, 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking ! 
Dream of battle-fields no more, 

Days of danger, nights of waking, 
In our isle's enchanted hall, 

Hands unseen thy couch are strewing, 
Fairy streams of music fall, 

Every sense in slumber dewing." 

1. What properties have nouns, and pronouns? 

2. What is gender ? 

3. How many genders are there, and what are they? 

4. When is a noun or pronoun of the Masculine 
gender? Feminine? Common? Neuter? 






REVIEW. 99 

5. What are the three ways of distinguishing 
gender? 

6. What is person in grammar ? 

7. How many persons are there, and what are they ? 

8. When is a noun or pronoun of the first person ? 
second? third? 

9. What is number ? 

10. How many numbers are there, and what are they? 

11. How is the plural number of nouns generally 
formed ? 

12. How is the plural formed when a vowel precedes 
final o, or y ? 

13. How is the plural formed when a consonant 
precedes final i, o, u, or y ? 

14. What is the plural of knife, life, wolf ? 

15. When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr. is used with a 
name, how is the term made plural ? 

16. When the title is Mrs., or when the word two or 
three stands before the name, how is the title made 
plural ? 

17. What is case ? 

18. How many cases are there, and what are they ? 

19. When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative 
case? 

20. When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative 
case independent? 

21. When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative 
case absolute? 

22. What is the rule for the subject of a finite verb ? 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. Give the rule for a noun or pronoun used in- 
dependently, or absolutely. 

24. What is said of a noun or pronoun used as an 
attribute ? 

25. When is a noun or pronoun in the possessive 
case ? 

26. How is the possessive case of nouns generally 
formed ? 

27. How is the possessive case of plural nouns that 
end with s, formed ? 

28. What is the rule for a noun or pronoun denoting 
possession ? 

29. When is a noun or pronoun in the objective 
case? 

30. Give the rule for a noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a verb. 

31. Give the rule for a noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a preposition. 

32. When is a noun or pronoun in the same case as 
another ? 

33. What is a predicate-nominative ? 

34. When are two terms said to be in apposition ? 

35. Give the rule that applies to a predicate-nomi- 
native or substantive. 

38. Give the rule that applies to nouns in apposition. 

37. What is the declension of a noun or pronoun ? 

38. Decline child, I, you, he, she, it, myself, who. 

39. Give the rule for the agreement of a noun or 
pronoun with its antecedent. 



ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 101 

LESSON XXII. 

ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES. 

113. An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning. 

The definite article is the, which points out a particular 
object, group, or kind. 

The indefinite article is A or ax, which shows that one 
of a kind is meant, but no particular one. 

A or an is placed before nouns in the singular number; 
the, before nouns in the singular or plural. 

114. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

115. Adjectives are divided into the following gen- 
eral classes : common, proper, participial, compound, 
numeral, and pronominal. 

116. A Common Adjective is an adjective that ex- 
presses quality or circumstance ; as, good, upper, daily. 

117. A Proper Adjective is an adjective derived 
from a proper noun ; as, American, English, Newtonian. 

118. A Participial Adjective is a participle used as 
a descriptive adjective. Tivinkling stars. 

119. A Compound Adjective is a compound word 
used as an adjective. " Thick-warbled songs." 

120. A Numeral Adjective is a definitive adjective 
that expresses number. 

121. Numeral Adjectives are divided into three 
classes : cardinal, ordinal, and multiplicative. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. A cardinal numeral tells how many ; as, one, two. 

2. An ordinal numeral tells which one; &$, first, second. 

3. A multiplicative numeral tells how many fold; as, 
single, double. 

122. A Pronominal Adjective is a definitive word 
which may accompany a noun or represent it understood. 

123. Pronominal Adjectives are divided into three 
classes: distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. 

1. The distributive relate to objects taken separately. 
Ex. — Each, every, either, neither. 

2. The demonstrative point out objects definitely. 

Ex. — This, these, that, those, yon, yonder, same, former, 
latter. 

3. The indefinite relate to objects indefinitely. 

Ex. — Any^other, another, one, both, all, some, such, 
several. 

Rule. — An article or an adjective relates to 
the noun or pronoun which it limits or describes. 

Write ten complex sentences, each of which shall contain 
one or more of the folloiuing nouns, modified by one or more 
adjectives ; underscore all adjectives tvith one line : 

Man, moon, fields, fountains, pennies, pupils, conduct, 
soldiers, trees, garden. 

Ex.— That poor man who just now begged for a few 
pennies, was once a wealthy Western farmer. 

Several industrious pupils have been annoyed in one 
way or another by this young man, who is as idle as he is 
mischievous. 



COMPARISOX. 



103 



LESSON XXIII. 
COMPARISON. 

124. Comparison is the variation of the form of 
adjectives or adverbs to express quality in different 
degrees. 

125. There are three degrees of comparison : the 
positive, comparative, and superlative. 

126. An adjective is in the positive degree when it 
expresses simply the quality ; as, hard, good. 

127. An adjective is in the comparative degree, when 
it expresses the quality in a higher or lower degree ; 
as, harder, better, less hard. 

128. An adjective is in the superlative degree, when 
it expresses the quality in the highest or lowest de- 
gree ; as, hardest, best, least hard. 

129. Adjectives of one syllable are generally com- 
pared by annexing er for the comparative degree, and 
est for the superlative. 

Ex. — Positive, hard; comparative, harder ; superlative, 
hardest. 

130. "Words of two syllables, that end with y or le, 
or have the accent on the second syllable, may also be 
compared by annexing er and est. 

131. Words of two or more syllables are compared 
by means of the adverbs more and most. 

Ex. — Positive, faithful; comparative, more faithful; 
superlative, most faithful. 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



132. To express degrees below the positive, the ad- 
verbs less and least are used. 

Ex. — Positive, good; comparative, less good ; superla- 
tive, least good. 

133. The comparative degree is used when but two 
objects are compared ; the superlative is used when 
three or more are compared. 

Ex. — James and John are bright boys. John is the 
younger, but he is taller than James; he is the tallest of 
four brothers. 

134. Some adjectives are compared by the use of 
different words. 

• Ex. — Positive. Comparative. 

Good, better, 

Bad, worse, 

111, worse, 

Little, less, 

Much, more, 

Far, farther, 

Fore, former, 

Compare rich, sweet, able, happy, polite, nice, elegant, 
piercing, dreary, many, evil, old. 

135 An adjective cannot be properly compared 
when it denotes what cannot exist in different degrees. 
Ex. — Equal, square, dead, two. 

Compare by means of less and least : 

Convenient, confident, oily, troublesome, exact, indul- 
gent. 



Superlative. 
best. 
w r orst. 
worst, 
least, 
most, 
farthest, 
foremost or first. 



PARSING. FALSE SYNTAX. 105 

LESSON XXIV. 
PARSING. FALSE SYNTAX. 

Parsing is the mentioning of the parts of speech, and 
their properties and relations, according to the definitions 
and rules of grammar. 

Analyze the following sentences; parse the nouns, pro- 
nouns, and adjectives : 

The sweetest flowers fringed the little stream. The 
summer breezes blow soft and cool. Up springs the lark, 
shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn. National 
debt makes the rich richer, and the poor poorer. On the 
bank stood a tall waving ash, sound to the very top. 
There are two larger pear-trees in the second row. The 
trees that grow on the highest land are generally the 
smallest. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles 
wide. It is better to die poor than to acquire riches dis- 
honorably. 

" Twelve Spartan virgins, noble, young, and fair, 
With violet wreaths adorned their flowing hair." 

"There, with a light and easy motion, 

The fan coral sweeps through the clear deep sea ; 

And the yellow and scarlet tufts of ocean 
Are bending like corn on the upland lea." 

Correct the following examples of false syntax : 

ARTICLES. 

Obs. 1. — A should be used when the next word 
after it begins with a consonant sound ; an should be 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

used when the next word after it begins with a vowel 
sound* 

We encamped in a open field. Such an one said so. 

It is an useful exercise. He is a honest man. 

There was not an human being on the place. 

It is an universal complaint. 

An united people is powerful. 

It seems a easy thing to conform to this rule. 

Obs. 2. — A or an denotes an indefinite one of sev- 
eral ; the denotes the only one, the class, or a particu- 
lar one of several. 

He does not own as much as the fifth part of what you 
own. 

No particular fifth part was meant ; and there are more fifths than 
one, in a whole. 

An oak tree is a tree of great durability. That noble 
animal, a horse. 

The assertion may not be true of any one tree ; but it is true of 
the class in general. 

A lion is bold. A pink is a very common species of flower. 

Obs. 3. — When connected descriptive words refer to 
different persons or things, an article is generally 
needed before each of the words. 

A black and white calf were the only two I saw. 

The white and black inhabitants amount to several 
thousands. 

A beautiful stream flowed between the old and new 
mansion. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 107 

The sick and wounded were left at this place. 
The young and old thronged the church. 

Obs. 4. — When connected descriptive words refer to 
the same person or thing, the article can generally be 
used only before the first of the words. 

A white and a black calf is one calf with two colors. 

There is another and a better world. 

My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable 
woman. 

She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman. 

Fire is a better servant than a master. 

Everett, the patriot, the statesman, and the orator, 
should be invited. 

The earth is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Obs. 1. — Them should not be used as an adjective, 
in place of those. 

Them boys are very lazy. Give me them books. 

What do you ask for them peaches ? Take away them 
things. 

Let some of them boys sit on some of them other 
benches. 

Them are good mackerels. Them are my sentiments. 

Obs. 2. — Adjectives should not be compared when 
their meaning does not allow or require it. 

It is the most universal opinion. 

Incoerect : universal cannot be compared with propriety ; there- 
fore most should be omitted. The sentence should be, ° It is the 
universal opinion." 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Virtue confers supremest dignity on man, and should 
be his chiefest desire. A more perpendicular line. (A 
line more nearly.) 

I think the rose is the beautifullest of flowers. 

He is the awkwardest fellow I ever saw. 

He lives in the fartherest house on the street. 

This is badder, but the other is worser still. 

Obs. 3. — Double comparatives and superlatives 
should be avoided. 

The office could not have been given to a more worthier 
man. 

A farmer's life is the most happiest.* 

She is the most loveliest one of the sisters. 

She seemed more lovelier to me than ever before. 

The lessor quantity I remove to the other side. 

The ending er, of the comparative degree, is equivalent to the 
word more. 

These were the least happiest years of my life. 

This was the most unwisest thing you could have done. 

Obs. 4. — The comparative degree is used when but 
two objects are compared ; and the superlative, when 
three or more are compared. 

The eldest of her two sons is going to school. The 
latter of three. 

John is the oldest, but James is the largest, of the two 
boys. 

Which is the largest number— the minuend or the sub- 
trahend ? 

Which do you like best — tea or coffee ? The last of two. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 109 

Which is farthest North, Chicago or London ? 
Choose the least of two evils. This hurt him worst oi 
anything else. 

Obs. 5. — In comparison, other, else, or a similar word, 
must sometimes be inserted to prevent the leading 
term from being compared with itself. 

That tree overtops all the trees in the forest. 

He thinks he knows more than anybody. 

Nothing is so good for a sprain as cold water. 

There is no situation so good anywhere. 

No magazine is so well written as the Atlantic Monthly. 

Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 

Thomas is taller than any one of his class. 

New York is more densely populated than any city in 
the United States. 



LESSON XXV. 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is an article? 

2. What is the definite article ? 

3. What is the indefinite article? 

4. When is a used? When ant See p. 14 

5. What is an adjective ? 

6. How many general classes of adjectives are 
there? 

7. Name them. 



110 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



8. What is a common adjective? 

9. "What is a proper adjective ? 

10. What is a participial adjective? 

11. What is a compound adjective? 

12. What is a numeral adjective ? 

13. Into how many classes are numeral adjectives 
divided, and what are they ? 

14. What is a pronominal adjective ? 

15. Into what classes are pronominal adjectives 
divided ? 

16. Give the rule of syntax relating to adjectives. 

17. What is comparison ? 

18. How many degrees of comparison are there, and 
what are they ? 

19. When is an adjective said to be in the positive 
degree ? 

20. When is an adjective in the comparative degree? 

21. When is an adjective in the superlative degree ? 

22. How are adjectives of one syllable generally 
compared ? 

23. How are adjectives of two syllables that end 
with y or le, sometimes compared ? 

24. How are words of two or more syllables gen- 
erally compared? 

25. How are degrees below the positive expressed? 

26. When is the comparative degree used ? 

27. When is the superlative degree used ? 

28. What adjectives cannot be properly compared? 



VERBS. 



Ill 



LESSON XXVI. 

VERBS. 

136. A Verb is a word used to express the act or 
^tate of a subject. 

Ex. — The horse ran. The rose blooms. He ivas elected, 

137. Verbs are divided, according to their form, into 
regular and irregular. 

138. A Regular Verb is a verb that takes the end- 
ing ed, to form its past tense and its perfect participle. 

Ex. — Present tense, plant; past tense, planted ; perfect 
participle, planted. Carry, carri-e^. 

139. An Irregular Verb is a verb that does not 
take the ending ed, to form its past tense and its per- 
fect participle. 

Ex. — Sweep, swept, swept; cling, clung, clung ; cut, 
cut, cut. 

140. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present 
tense, the past tense, the present participle, and the per- 
fect participle. 

These are called the principal parts, because by 
means of them and the auxiliary verbs all the other parts 
of the verb can be formed. 

141. The Present Tense is the simplest form of 
the verb ; as, go. 

142. The Past Tense is the simplest form that 
expresses a past fact ; as, tvent. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

142. The Present Participle is that form which 
ends always with ing ; as, go-ing. 

143. The Perfect Participle is that form which 
makes sense with the word having before it ; as, gone. - 
(having gone). 

144. Verbs are divided, according to their relation 
to subjects, into finite and not finite. 

145. A Finite Verb is a verb that predicates the 
act or state of its subject. 

Ex. — The plant grows. John has arrived. I am alone. 

146. A verb that is not finite, does not predicate the 
act or state of its subject. 

"John having arrived." "For me to he alone." 

147. Verbs that are not finite, may be divided into 
two classes ; infinitives and participles. 

148. Verbs are divided, according to their relation 
to objects, into transitive and intransitive. 

149. A Transitive Verb is a verb that has an ob- 
ject, or requires one to complete the sense. 

Ex. — "The lightning struck the oak." (Struck what?) 
"I knew him well, and every truant kneiv" [him]. — 

150. An Intransitive Verb is a verb that does not 
have or require an object. 

Ex. — Birds fly. Koses bloopi. 

An intransitive verb that does not imply action or exer- 
tion, is sometimes called a neuter verh. 
Ex. — The ocean is deep. The book lies on the table. 



VERBS. 113 

151. The same ward is sometimes used as a transi- 
tive verb, and sometimes as an intransitive. 

" The prince succeeds the king." "In every project he 
succeeds" 

Write the principal parts of the following verbs: 
Sully, watch, gamble, dazzle, worry, go, stand, stud^, lie 5 
lay, sit, set, write. 

Ex. — Present. Past or Preterite. Pres. Part. Perf. Part. 
Sully, sullied, sullying, sullied. 

Write, wrote, writing, written. 

Lie, lied, lying, lied. 

Lie (to rest), lay, lying* lain. 

Write five sentences containing a transitive verb, and 
five containing an intransitive verb. 

Ex. — Webster delivered his great oration in the Senate 
Chamber. He spoke for two consecutive hours. 



LESSON XXVII. 
VERBS. 

152. An Auxiliary Verb is one that is used to con- 
jugate other verbs. 

In the sentences, " He studies," " He can study," " He 
may have studied," we call study a principal verb ; while 
can, may, and have are but auxiliary verbs. A verb helps 
to conjugate another, when it serves to express it in the 
different forms. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The auxiliary verbs are — 

Be and its variations ; used to express the passive and 
the progressive forms. 

Do and did ; used generally for emphasis. 

Have and had; used to express the perfect tenses. 

Can and could; used to express power or possibility. 

May and might; used to express possibility, permission, 
or wishing. 

Must ; used to express necessity. 

Shall and should; generally used to express compulsion 
or duty. 

Will and tvould; generally used to express inclination 
or tendency. 

Shall and will also express the future tenses. 

Do, be, and have are also frequently used as principal 
verbs. 

Ex. — Do as you would be done by. I have a copy of 
Shelley's poems. 

PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 

153. Verbs have voice, mood, tense, person, and number. 

154. Voice is that property of transitive verbs which 
shows whether the subject does, or receives, the act. 

155. There are two voices : the active and the passive. 

156. A transitive verb is in the active voice, when it 
represents its subject as acting. "He watches.'" 

157. A transitive verb is in the passive voice, when 
it represents its subject as acted upon. "He is 
watched." 

Most transitive verbs imply action ; but a few — as, resemble, owrk 



VERBS. 115 

and have — do not imply action. Such a verb is in the active voice, 
when it relates to an object ; and in the passive, when it has the 
object for its subject. 

158. Voice is a property that belongs to transitive 
verbs only. 

159. The Passive Form consists of the verb be, or 
some variation of it, combined with the perfect parti- 
ciple of a transitive verb. 

Ex. — " The pitcher isiroJcen" " It was to be sent home. " 

Change the following sentences so that the verbs tvill he 
in the passive voice : 

The rulers robbed the people. 

John struck the dog. 

Henry and I must weed the garden. 

He raised his eyes to where I stood. 

They who are rich should assist the poor and helpless. 

I bought the book. 

Adversity taught you both to think and to reason. 

They accused him of acting unfairly. 

We shipped the goods yesterday. 

Misfortune will overtake him sooner or later. 

The whirlwind that swept through the city yesterday, 
upset vehicles, toppled over chimneys, uprooted trees, and 
caused many casualties. 

Ex. — Vehicles were upset, chimneys were toppled over, 
trees were uprooted, and many casualties were caused by 
the whirlwind that swept through the city yesterday. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

160. Mood is the manner in which the act or state 
is expressed with reference to its subject. 

The act or state can be referred to the subject, as some- 
thing real ; as something merely supposed ; as something 
real or supposed, and modified by a relation ; as some- 
thing commanded, or as something subordinate, or merely 
assumed and not predicated. 

161. There are four moods : the indicative, the sub- 
junctive, the potential, and the imperative. 

Most grammarians call the infinitive the infinitive mood, thus 
making five moods ; and some call ike participle the participial mood, 
Thus making six moods. Infinitives and participles may be consid- 
ered as moods ; but it seems to us that they are sufficiently distin- 
guished by being called infinitives and participles. 

The Indicative Mood denotes what is real. 

162. A verb in the indicative mood expresses an 
actual occurrence or fact. 

Ex. — I went It snotvs. " Moses was God's first pen." 
— Bacost. 

163. — A doubt, condition, or inference, assumed as 
a fact, must be in the indicative mood. 
Ex. — If I am deceived, I am ruined. 

If I ivas deceived, I did not know it. 
In these examples, the fact is assumed. 

The Subjunctive Mood denotes what is ideal. 



VERBS. 



11? 



164. A verb in the subjunctive mood expresses a 
future contingency, or a mere supposition, wish, con- 
clusion, or consequence. 

Ex. — If I go, I shall go alone. 

" had I the wings of a dove! " (But I have not.) 

Were I in your condition I would remain. 

165. If, though, lest, unless, except, whether, that, till, 
or a similar word, generally precedes and indicates 
the subjunctive mood. 

Ex. — If I were. If I had been. 

166. By placing the verb or its auxiliary before the 
subject, the conjunction can generally be omitted. 

Ex. — Were I, for If I tvere. Had I been, for If I had 
been. 

167. The Potential Mood expresses the power, 
possibility, liberty, necessity, will, duty, or inclination, 
of the subject in regard to the act or state. 

Ex.— I can go. It might rain. 

You may go. I must go. I would go. 

Children should obey their parents. 

They who tvould be happy must be virtuous. 

168. The signs of the potential mood are may, can, 
musty might, could, would, and should. 

169. The Imperative Mood is used to express a 
command, entreaty, or exhortation. 

Ex.— " John, sit up." " Forgive our trespasses." 



118 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



170. The imperative mood is generally used only in 
the present tense and the second person. 

Ex. — " Charge, Chester, charge!" — Scott. 

171. The subject of a verb in the imperative mood 
is thou, you, or ye, generally understood. 

Ex.— " Know thyself." 
That is, know thou thyself. 

172. The indicative and the potential moods can be 
used interrogatively. 

Ex. — "'Is he in the army, then ?' said my Uncle 
Toby." — Sterne. 

" Must I endure all this .?" 

Parse the verbs in the folloiving sentences : 

The City of Lisbon was destroyed by an earthquake. 

Model. — Was destroyed is a regular transitive verb; present, 
destroy ; past, destroyed ; present participle, destroying ; perfect 
participle, destroyed ; passive voice, indicative mood, and refers to 
its subject-nominative, city. * 

The teacher should ask, Why is it regular ? transitive ? passive 
voice ? indicative mood ? 

A better house could have teen built for the money. 
If it be fair to-morrow, I shall go to Philadelphia. 
Though friends fail and riches vanish, virtue will be 
rewarded. 

" Come unto me all ye that are weary and heavy laden.' p 

Write five sentences which shall contain a verb in the 
indicative mood and also a verb in the subjunctive, and five 
sentences which shall contain a verb in the potential mood 



VERBS. 119 

and also a verb in the subjunctive ; underscore the verbs 
in the indicative mood with one line, the verbs in the poten- 
tial mood with two lines, and the verbs in the subjunctive 
mood with three lines. 

Ex. — I will do what is right though the heavens fall. 

If Henry were well he would have come to school this 
morning. 



LESSON XXIX. 
INFINITIVES. 

173. An Infinitive is a form of the verb that gen- 
erally begins with to, and that expresses the act or 
state without predicating it. 

Ex. — To lead, to have led, to be led, to have been led. 

174. There are two infinitives : the present and the 

perfect 

A transitive verb has both in each voice; thus making four 
forms, as above. 

PRESENT INFINITIVE. 

175. The Present Infinitive denotes, — 

Simply the act or state. 
Ex.—" To love is to serve" 

176. The present infinitive consists of to, combined 
with the simplest form of the verb ; or of to be, with a 
simple participle. 

Ex. — To write, to be writing, to be written. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

177. The Perfect Infinitive represents the act 01 
state as completed at the time referred to. 

Ex. — "You seem to have come through the rain." 

178. The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or to 
have been, combined with a simple participle. 

To have written, to have been writing, to have been 
written. 

179. The infinitive is a verbal noun, and may be 
used, — 

As the subject of a verb. " To retreat was impossible." 
As the object of a verb. " He wished to retreat" 

' As the object of about, except, or but. " He is about to 

retreat" 

As a predicate-nominative. " To sin is to suffer." 

As an appositive. "Delightful task! to rear the 

tender thought." 

180. To is omitted after the active verbs bid, make, 
need, hear, let, see, feel, and dare; sometimes after 
have, help, please ; and sometimes after a conjunction, 
or in colloquial expressions. 

Ex.—" Let us [to] sing." "I heard him [to] say it." 
[It is] " Better [to] lose than [to] be disgraced." 

TELule.—An, infinitive depends on the word 
which it limits, or which leads to its use. 

Parse the infinitives; tell ivhether present or perfect, 
active or passive, to what each relates, and on what word it 
depends : 



VERBS. 121 

We were anxious to return that night. 
To return is a regular, intransitive verb, present infinitive, re. 
lates to we , and depends upon anxious. Rule. — 

* h The Passions oft, to hear her shell, 
Thronged round her magic cell." 

" To appear discouraged is the surest way to invite an 
attack." 

It is best to have nothing to do with him. 

The wagons were so arranged as to protect the camp. 

We were now obliged to run in order to reach the boat. 

" It is glorious to die for one's country." 

Laws to prevent such outrages should be enacted. 

We were trying to sing. 

The teacher told us to listen that we might hear them 
sing. 

"To err is human, to forgive divine." 

We are prepared to recite. 

John is eager to learn. 

" I come not here to talk." 

The colonel gave the order to fire. 

He is said to have been reading Shakespeare. 

To have written Thanatopsis is glory enough. 

Write five sentences containing the present infinitive, 
and five containing the perfect infinitive. Underscore the 
present infinitive with one line, the perfect infinitive ivith 
two lines. 

Ex. — You love to ramble in the fields and gather 
flowers. 
You seem to have been unfortunate. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXX, 
PARTICIPLES. 

181. A Participle is a form of the verb that ex- 
presses the act or state without predicating it, and 
generally has the sense of an adjective. 

Ex. — " A tree, bending with fruit, fell to the ground." 

Observe that fell, and not bending, predicates something of tree ; 
also that the phrase bending with fruit, is, like an adjective, descrip- 
tive of the tree. 

182. There are two participles : the present and the 
perfect, each of which is either simple or compound. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

183. The Present Participle represents the act or 
state as present and continuing at the time referred to. 

"Being thus wounded, he cannot return to his regi- 
ment." 

184. The simple present participle is made by 
annexing ing to the simplest form of the verb. 

Ex. — Catch, catching ; hide, hiding ; dig, digging. 

185. The simple present participle of a transitive 
verb is nearly always in the active voice. 

Ex. — " The bee, stinging the boy, soon set itself free." 

186. The compound present participle is made by 
combining being with the simple perfect participle of a 
transitive verb, and is in the passive voice. 



VERBS. 123 

187. The Perfect Participle represents the act or 
state as completed at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " A fox, caught in a trap." 

" A fox, having caught a hen, met the owner/' etc. 

188. The simple perfect participle is made by an- 
nexing eel to the simplest form of the verb ; or it is an 
irregular form, given in the list of irregular verbs. 

Ex. — Pitch, pitched; give, given; see, seen; teach, 
taught. 

189. The simple perfect participle of a transitive 
verb is either active or passive. 

190. The compound perfect participle is made by 
combining having or having been with a simple parti- 
ciple, and is either active or passive. 

Ex. — " Having said this, he withdrew." 

The soldier, having been amended, was left behind. 

Rule.-«i participle relates to a noun or pro- 
noun ; and it is sometimes governed by a prepo- 
sition. 

Write ten sentences, in some one of which, each of the 

participial forms shall le illustrated. Underscore the 

present participles with one line, the perfect with two lines. 

Ex. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a 

soldier lay, 

Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding 

slow his life away. 
The soldier having been wounded was borne from the 

field. 
The sun having risen we departed. 



124 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXX. 
TENSE. 

191. Tense is that property of verbs which shows 
the distinctions of time. 

192. Time may be divided into present, past, and 
future. 

1. Pkesent time/ strictly speaking, can denote but a 
moment of duration ; yet longer periods, extending into 
both the future and the past, are often considered present; 
as when we say, this clay, this week, this year, this cen- 
tury, in our lifetime. Past time begins from the present, 
and goes back as far as our thoughts can wander. 
Future time begins from the same point, and goes for- 
ward to a similar extent. In each of these periods, an act 
maybe considered either as merely taking place or as com- 
pleted, thus making the six tenses. 

Eead the following both down the page and across it: 
Present. Past. Future. 

I write I wrote. I shall write 

I have written I had written I shall have written. 

193. There are six tenses : the present, the present- 
perfect ; the past, the past-perfect; the future, and the 
future-perfect. 

The terms perfect and pluperfect may also be used instead of 
present-perfect and past-perfect. 

194 The present tense denotes present time. 
Ex. — The grass is growing. 

Heat melts snow. (When ? Now, always.) 



VERBS. 125 

195. The present-perfect tense denotes present com- 
pletion. 

Ex. — I have finished the work. (When ? To-day, this 
week, this month, or this year ?) 

196. The past tense denotes past time indefinitely. 
Ex. — He was fishing when I saiv him. 

197. The past-perfect tense denotes past completion 
of the act or state. 

Ex. — Here a rose-bush had once been planted. 
If I had been at home I should have welcomed you 
heartily. 

198. The future tense denotes simply future time. 
Ex. — I shall see you to-morrow. 

The snow will melt, and the trees will bud and blossom 
again. 

199. The future-perfect tense denotes future comple- 
tion of the act or state. 

Ex. — By the year 1900 we shall have become a great 
nation. 

When the girls graduate, they will have been at college 
three years. 

Shall and will. In predicting an act or state, we 
say, " I shall" and "You or they will." 

In expressing determination, or a threat, we say, " T 
will, you or they shall" 

200. The tenses of the subjunctive mood may be 
distinguished from the tenses of the indicative by ob- 
serving that the subjunctive tenses movefonoard in time. 



126 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Ex. — If I he able to stand, I shall go— hereafter. 
If I were at home I should be happy.— present. 
Had I been there when the fire began, I could have 
saved the house. — Indefinite past. 



LESSON XXXI. 
TENSE FORMS, ETC. 

201. The indicative mood has six tenses; two 
present, two past, and two future. 

202. The subjunctive mood has three tenses ; a 
present, a past, and a past-perfect. 

203. The potential mood has four tenses ; two present 
and two past. 

204. The imperative mood has but one tense; the 
present. 

205. The forms of a tense are the different ways in 
whicli it can be expressed. 

Ex. — He strikes, does strike, is striking, is struck, 
striketh. 

206. There are five forms : the common, the em- 
phatic, the passive, the progressive, and the ancient or 
solemn style. 

207. The common form is the verb expressed in the 
most simple and ordinary manner. 

Ex. — Time fl ies. He went home. 



VERBS. 



127 



208. The emphatic form is expressed by do or did as 
a part of the verb. 

Ex. — I did say so. Eeally, it does move. 

209. The passive form is that which is generally 
used to express the passive voice ; and it is made by 
combining the verb be, or some variation of it, with 
the perfect participle. 

Ex. — The oak tvas shattered by lightning. 
The pitcher was broken. 

210. The progressive form is that which expresses 
continuance of the act or state ; and it is made by 
combining the verb be, or some variation of it, with 
the present participle. 

Active.— I wrote; I was ivriting. She is dancing. 

Passive. — "I guessed that some mischief was con- 
triving" — Swift. 

" Where a new church is now building. — Everett. 

"While these affairs ivere transacting in Europe." — 
Bancroft. 

"Our chains are forging. — Wirt, as Patrick Henry. 

"Yankee Doodle tvas playing as I came in." — M. C. 

" Where the new rifle-practice tvas being introduced" — 
Atl. Monthly. 

u Your friend is being buried." — Harper's Magazine. 

211. The person and number of a verb are prop- 
erties which show its agreement with its subject. 

Ex. — I am. Thou art. He is. We are. He strikes. 
They strike. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Verbs have, like their subjects, three persons and two 
numbers. 

Rule.— A finite verb must agree with its sub- 
ject, in person and number. 

212. Thou generally requires the verb, or the first 
auxiliary, to end with est, st, or t. 

" Thou hnowest that thou didst the deed." " Thou art 
the man." 

When the termination required by thou would be harsh, 
it is sometimes omitted, especially in poetry. 
" Thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." — Pope. 
" Perhaps thou noticed on thy way a little orb." — Pollok. 

In the imperative mood, thou does not require any vari- 
ation in the form of the verb. 

213. He, she, or it, requires that the verb, in the 
present indicative, shall end with s or es, th or eth. 

Ex. — He has, or hath. She teaches, or teacheth. 
The verb ought, which is never varied, is the only exception. 

214. In the plural number the verb has the same 
form for all the persons. 

Ex. — We write. You write. They write. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse all the 
words : 

I owe to his precepts whatever there is of the man of 
business in my composition. 




ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 129 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence, in which the 
dependent clause is the object of the principal verb. 2" is the 
principal subject; owe to Ms precepts whatever, etc., is the principal 
predicate. Owe is the predicate- verb ; it is modified by the adverbial 
adjunct to Ms precepts, and the objective clause whatever there is of 
the man of business in my composition. Whatever is the subject of 
the dependent clause ; it is modified by the attribute phrase of the 
man of business; is is the predicate-verb ; it is modified by the ad- 
verbial adjuncts there, and in my composition. I is a personal pro 
noun, of the first person, singular number, and is nominative case to 
oice. RuiiE. — A noun or pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
verb must be in the nominative case. Owe is a regular transitive 
verb : present owe, past owed, present participle owing, perfect par- 
ticiple owed ; active voice, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees 
with its subject Jin the first person singular number. Rule. — Afinite 
verb must agree with its subject in person and number, and so on. 

The old house was torn down by the workmen. 
You have met with men whom patience has armed. 
He had lingered by the edge of the pond till the golden 
hues had faded out of the West. 

The time will come when his name will be honored and 
his words will be quoted wherever the English language 
is spoken. 
Next Christmas he will have been at school a year. 
He who would see the sun rise, must rise early. 
If we had waited, we should have seen the procession. 
" If you've any task to do, 
Let me whisper, friend, to you, 
Doit!" 
" If you've anything to give, 
That another's joy may live, 

Give it!" 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a 
soldier lay, 
Torn with shot, and pierced with lances, bleeding slow 

his life away." — Whittiek. 
He was known to have assisted the editor, in collecting 
material for the work. 



LESSON XXXII. 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is a verb ? 

2. How are verbs divided with regard to their 
form? 

3. What is a regular verb ? 

4. What is an irregular verb ? 

5. What are the principal parts of a verb ? 

6. What is the present tense ? 

7. What is the past tense ? 

8. What is the present participle ? 

9. What is the perfect participle ? 

10. How are verbs divided with regard to their 
relation to subjects? 

11. What is a finite verb? 

12. What classes of verbs are not finite ? 

13. How are verbs divided with regard to their re< 
lation to objects? 

14. What is a transitive verb ? 



REVIEW. 131 

15. What is an intransitive verb ? 

16. What is an auxiliary verb ? 

17. Name the principal auxiliaries, and their uses. 

18. Which of these auxiliaries are used as principal 
verbs ? 

19. What properties have verbs ? 

20. What is voice? How many voices have verbs? 

21. When is a transitive verb said to be in the active 
voice ? 

22. When is a transitive verb said to be in the 
passive voice? 

23. What is the passive form of a verb ? 
24 What is mood? 

25. How many moods are there, and what are 
they? 

26. What does a verb in the indicative mood express ? 

27. What does a verb in the subjunctive mood ex- 
press ? 

28. What conjunctions generally precede a verb in 
the subjunctive mood ? 

29. In what other way may the subjunctive mood be 
expressed ? 

30. What does the potential mood express ? 

31. What auxiliaries are signs of the potential 
mood ? 

32. What does the imperative mood express ? 

33. What is the subject of a verb in the imperative 
mood? 

34. What moods can be used interrogatively ? 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

35. What is an infinitive? How many infinitives? 

36. "What does the present infinitive denote, and 
how is it formed ? 

37. What does the perfect infinitive denote, and 
how is it formed ? 

38. What is the infinitive in sense, and how may it 
be used ? 

39. When is the sign of the infinitive to, omitted? 

40. Give the rule of syntax that relates to the in- 
finitive ? 

41. What is a participle ? 

42. How many participles are there, and what are 
they? 

43. What is the present participle ? 

44. How is the simple present participle formed ? 

45. How is the compound present participle formed ? 

46. What is the perfect participle ? 

47. How is the simple perfect participle formed ? 

48. How is the compound perfect participle formed ? 

49. Give the rule of syntax tha t relates to participles? 

50. What is tense? 

51. How many tenses are there, and what are they? 

52. What does the present tense denote? 

53. What does the present perfect tense denote? 

54. What does the past tense denote ? 

55. What does the past perfect tense denote? 

56. What does the future tense denote? 

57. What does the future perfect tense denote ? 

58. Explain the uses of shall and will. 



VERBS. 133 

59* How may the subjunctive mood be distin- 
guished ? 

60. What is the passive form of a verb, and how is 
it made ? 

61. What is the progressive form of a verb, and 
how is it made ? 

62. What are the person and number of a verb ? 

63. Give the rule for the agreement of a finite verb 
with its subject? 



LESSON XXXIII. 
CONJUGATION. 

215. The Conjugation of a verb is the proper com- 
bination and arrangement of all its parts in persons, 
numbers, moods, tenses, and voices. 

216. A Synopsis of a verb is an outline of it, which 
shows its parts in a single person and number, through 
the moods and tenses. 

Synopsis of write, with the first person singular, through 
the six tenses of the indicative mood. 
Present, I write. Present- Perfect, I have written. 

Past, I wrote. Past-Perfect, I had written. 

Future, I shall write. Fut. -Perfect, I shall have written. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF BE. 

Present. Past. Pres. Participle. Perf Participle. 
Be or am, was, being, been. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

SlNGTJLAB. PLUKAL. 

First Person, I am, 1. We are, 

Second Person, You are, 2. You are, 

Third Person, He, she, or it is ; 3. They arOo 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. You were, 2. You were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been 

Future Tense. 

Simple futurity ; foretelling. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be ; 3. They will be. 

Promise, threat, or determination. 

1. I will be, 1. We will be, 

2. You shall be, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be; 3. They shall be. 



VERBS. 135 

Future-Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were, Were I, 1. If we were, Were we, 

2. If you were, Were you, 2. If you were, Were you, 

3. If he were ; or, Were he ; 3. If they were ; or, Were they. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been ; 3. If they had been., 

Or thus: — 

1. Had I been, 1. Had we been, 

2. Had you been, 2. Had you been, 

3. Had he been ; 3. Had they been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

In the same way conjugate can be and must be. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been, 
In the same way conjugate must have been and can I have been? 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 

Jn the same way conjugate could be, would be, and should be. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been; 3. They might have been, 

In the same way conjugate could have been, would have been, and 
should have been. 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

2. Be thou ; or, Do thou be. 2. Be ye or you; or, Do you be. 

Present Perfect. Compound. 

Ikfikitiyes, To be. To have been. 
Participles, Being. Been. Having been. 

Synopsis of the verb be, with thou. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou art. 

Present- Per feet Tense, Thou hast been. 






VERBS. 137 

Past Tense, Thou wast, or wert. 
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou hadst been. 
Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt be. 
Future-Perfect Tense, Thou shalt or wilt have been. 

"Thou wert, thou art, the cherished madness of my heart."— 
Byron. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, If thou be. 
Past Tense, If thou wert; or, wert thou. 
Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst been; or, hadst 
thou been. 

" If thou were" and " If thou had been" are sometimes used by 
good writers. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 

Present-Perfect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must 
have beeno 

Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 
shouldst be. 

Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst have been. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Be thou ; or, Do thou be. 

Write the synopsis of the irregular verb do with the 
first person singular, through all the moods and tenses. 
Principal parts: Present do, past did, present participle 
doing, past participle done. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

219. The regular verb ROW is conjugated in the 
active voice thus : 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. Past. Present Participle. Perfect Particiirte. 
Row, rowed, rowing, rowed. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I row, 1. We row, 

2. You row, 2. You row, 

3. He rows ; 3. They row. 

Let the verbs love, rule, permit, carry, strike, and see, be now con- 
jugated in the same way by other members of the class. So in 
each following tense. 

Emphatic Form. 
Bo, combined with the present infinitive. 

1. I do row, 1. We do row, 

2. You do row, 2. You do row, 

3. He does row; 3. They do row. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

Have, combined with the perfect participle. 

1. I have rowed, * 1. We have rowed, 

2. You have rowed, 2. You have rowed, 

3. He has rowed ; 3. They have rowed. 

In the solemn style, hath, roweth, and doth row, are used tor has t 
rows, and does row. 



VERBS. 139 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I rowed, 1. We rowed, 

2. You rowed, 2. You rowed, 

3. He rowed ; 3. They rowed. 

Emphatic Form. 
Did, combined with the present infinitive a 

1. I did row, 1. We did row, 

2. You did row, 2. You did row, 

3. He did row ; 3. They did row. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Had, combined with the perfect participle. 

1. I had rowed, 1. We had rowed, 

2. You had rowed, 2. You had rowed, 

3. He had rowed ; 3. They had rowed. 

Future Tense. 

Shall or will, combined with the present infinitive. 
Simple futurity ; foretelling. 

1. I shall row, 1. We shall row, 

2. You will row, 2. You will row, 

3. He will row ; 3. They will row. 

Promise, threat, or determination, 

1. I will row, 1. We will row, 

2. You shall row, 2. You shall row, 

3. He shall row ; 3. They shall row. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 

Shall or will, combined with the perfect participle. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 

1. I shall have rowed, 

2. You will have rowed, 

3. He will have rowed ; 



Plural. 

1. We shall have rowed, 

2. You will have rowed, 

3. They will have rowed. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mood are formed like those of ih* 
indicative. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I row, 1. If we row, 

2. If you row, 2. If you row, 

3. If he row ; 3. If they row. 

Emphatic Form. 

1. If I do row, 1. If we do row, 

2. If you do row, 2. If you do row, 

3. If he do row; 3. If they do row. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I rowed, 1. If we rowed, 

2. If you rowed, 2. If you rowed, 

3. If he rowed ; 3. If they rowed. 

Emphatic Form. 

1. If I did row, 1. If we did row, 

2. If you did row, 2. If you did row, 

3. If he did row ; 3. If they did row. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had row ed, 1. If we had rowed, 

2. If you had rowed, 2. If you had rowed, 

3. If he had rowed; 3. If they had rowed. 

Or, thus : — 
1. Had I rowed, 1. Had we rowed, 



2. Had you rowed, 

3. Had he rowed; 



2. Had you rowed, 

3. Had they rowed. 



VERBS. 141 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

May, can, or must, combined with the present infinitive. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may row, 1. We may row, 

2. You may row, 2. You may row, 

3. He may row; 3. They may row. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

May have, can have, or must have, combined with tlit 
perfect participle. 

1. I may have rowed, 1. We may have rowed, 

2. You may have rowed, 2. You may have rowed, 

3. He may have rowed; 3. They may have rowed. 

In the same way conjugate must have rowed. 

Past Tense. 

Might, could, would, or should, combined with the 
present infinitive. 

1. I might row, 1. We might row, 

2. You might row, 2. You might row, 

3. He might row; 3. They might row. 

In the same way conjugate could row, would row, and should row. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Might have, could have, ivould have, or should have, com- 
bined with the perfect participle. 

1. I might have rowed, 1. We might have rowed, 

2. You might have rowed, 2. You might have rowed, 

3. He might have rowed ; 3. They might have rowed. 

In the same way conjugate could have rowed, would have rowed, 

and should have rowed. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

2. Row thou ; or, Do thou 2. Row ye or you ; or, Do 
row. you row. 

Present. Perfect. Compound. 

Infinitives, To row. To have rowed. 
Participles, Rowing. Rowed. Having rowed. 

Synopsis of the word roiv, with thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou rowest, or dost row. 
Present- Perfect Tense, Thou hast rowed. 
Past Tense, Thou rowedst, or didst row. 
Past- Perfect Tense, Thou hadst rowed. 
Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt row. 
Future-Perfect Tense, Thou shalt or wilt have rowed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, If thou row, or do row. 

Past Tense, If thou rowed, didst row, or did row. 

Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst rowed. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must row. 

Present-Perfect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must 
have rowed. 

Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
row. 

Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst have rowed. 



VERBS. 143 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Kow thou ; or, Do thou row. 

Write the synopsis of the irregular transitive verb lay, 
with the first person plural, through all the moods ; also 
the synopsis of the irregular intransitive verb lie (to rest) r 
with the second person plural, through all the moods: 

Principal Parts. 
Lay, laid, laying, laid. 

Lie, lay, lying, lain. 



LESSON XXX V, 



220. A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive 
voice by adding its simple perfect participle to the 
different forms of the verb be. 

The regular verb roiv is conjugated in the passive voice 
thus : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am rowed, 1. We are rowed, 

2. You are rowed, 2. You are rowed, 

3. He is rowed ; 3. They are rowed. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been rowed, 1. We have been rowed, 

2. You have been rowed, 2. You have been rowed, 

3. He has been rowed; 3. They have been rowed, 



144 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was rowed, 1. We were rowed, 

2. You were rowed, 2. You were rowed, 

3. He was rowed ; 3. They were rowed. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1 I had been rowed, 1. We had been rowed, 

2. You had been rowed, 2. You had been rowed, 

3. He had been rowed ; 3, They had been rowed. 

Future Tense, 

1. I shall be rowed, 1. We shall be rowed, 

2. You will be rowed, 2. You will be rowed, 

3. He will be rowed ; 3. They will be rowed. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 

1. 1 shall have been rowed, 1. We shall have been rowed* 

2. You will have been rowed, 2. You will have been rowed, 

3. He will have been rowed ; 3. They will have been rowed. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

1. If we be rowed, 

2. If you be rowed, 

3. If they be rowed. 

Past Tense. 

1. If we were rowed, 

2. If you were rowed, 

3. If they were rowed. 



If I be rowed, 
If you be rowed, 
If he be rowed ; 



1. If I were rowed, 

2. If you were rowed, 

3. If he were rowed ; 



VERBS. 145 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been rowed, 1. If we had been rowed, 

2. if yon had been rowed, 2. If you had been rowed, 

3. If he had been rowed ; 3. If they had been rowed. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

1. I may be rowed, 1. We may be rowed, 

2. You may be rowed, 2. You may be rowed, 

3. He may be rowed ; 3. They may be rowed. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been rowed, 1. We may have been rowed, 

2. You may have been rowed, 2. You may have been rowed, 

3. He may have been rowed ; 3. They may have been rowed. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be rowed, 1. We might be rowed, 

2. You might be rowed, 2. You might be rowed, 

3. He might be rowed ; 3. They might be rowed. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. 1 might have been rowed, l.We might have been rowed, 
2. You might have been rowed,2. You might have been rowed, 
3.Hemighthave been rowed; 3.Theymighthavebeenrowed. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

&. lie thou rowed, or Do 2. Be ye or you rowed, or Do 
thou be rowed. you be rowed. 



146 ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. 



INFINITIVES. 

Present. Perfect 

To be rowed. To have been rowed 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Perfect. Compound^ 

Being rowed, Bowed, Having been rowed 

221. A verb is conjugated in the progressive form 
by adding its present participle to the different forms 
of the verb be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, I am rowing. 
Present-Perfect, I have been rowing. 
Past, I was rowing. 
Past- Perfect, I had been rowing. 
Future, I shall be rowing. 
Future-Perfect, I shall have been rowing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, If I be rowing. 
Past, If I were rowing. 
Past-Perfect, If I had been rowing. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present, I may, can, or must be rowing. 

Present-Perfect, I may have, can have, or must have 
been rowing. , 

Past, I might, could, would, or should be rowing. 

Past-Perfect, I might, could, would, or should have 
been rowing. 



, 



VERBS. 147 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou rowing, or Do 2. Be ye or you rowing, or 
thou be rowing. Do you be rowing. 

INFINITIVES. 

To be rowing, To have been rowing. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Having been rowing. 

Write the synopsis of the verb strike, in the passive 
voice, with it; also the synopsis of the verb sit with they, 
through all the moods. 



LESSON XXXVI. 

222. The compound present passive participle is 
sometimes added to the verb be, to express the pro- 
gressive passive sense. 

These forms usually occur only in the present and the past indica- 
tive and the past subjunctive. 

PRESENT INDICATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am being educated, 1. We are being educated, 

2. You are being educated, 2. You are being educated, 

3. He is being educated ; 3. They are being educated. 

PAST INDICATIVE. 

1. I was being educated, 1. We were being educated, 

2. You were being educated, 2. You were being educated, 

3. He was being educated ; 3. They were being educated. 



148 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAST SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1. If I were being educated, 1. If we were being educated, 

2. If you were being edu- 2. If you were being edu- 

cated, cated, 

3. If he were being edu- 3. If they were being edu- 

cated ; cated. 

223. A verb is conjugated negatively by placing 
the adverb not after the verb or after the first aux- 
iliary. 

Ex. — I am not. I was not. I have not been. I had 
not been, etc. He may not row. He could not row. 
He should not have rowed. 

224. A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the 
indicative and potential moods by placing the subject 
after the verb or after the first auxiliary. 

Ex.— Do I row ? Did I row ? Have I rowed ? Shall 
I row ? 

225. A verb is conjugated interrogatively and nega- 
tively by placing the subject and the adverb not after 
the verb or after the first auxiliary. 

Ex. — Am I not. Was I not. Have I not been, etc. 
Do I not row ? Did I not row ? Have I not rowed ? 
Had I not rowed ? Will I not row ? Shall I not have 
rowed ? 

226. A redundant verb is a verb that has more than 
one form for some of its principal parts. 

Ex.— Kneel; knelt or kneeled; kneeling; knelt or 
kneeled. 



VERBS. 149 

227. A defective verb is one that has not all the 
parts of a complete verb. 

The defective verbs are most of the auxiliaries, and 
beivare, methinks, ought, quoth, wit and worth. 

Beivare has no participles. 

Methinks, I think; methought, I thought; meseems^ 
to me it seems ; meseemed, to me it seemed, are unusual 
and poetical. 

Ought is used in the present tense when it is followed 
by the present infinitive, and in the past tense when fol- 
lowed by the perfect infinitive. 

Ex. — I ought to go ; I ought to have gone. 

Quoth is sometimes used in quaint or humorous lan- 
guage, for said. 

Ex.— " Not I, quoth Sancho." 

Wit, in the sense of Jcnotv, is yet used in the phrase to 
wit, meaning namely. 

Worth is used in two or three expressions. 

Ex. — Woe worth the day ; that is, woe be to the day. 

Wont may be added to the above, in the sense of accus- 
tomed. 

Ex. — He was wont to roam along the river banks. 

Write the principal parts of these verbs : 

Flow, fly, grow, win, bring, play, lay, bind, bound, give, 
rise, lie, seat, set, sit. 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXXVII. 
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

THE TWO PAST FORMS DIFFERENT.* 



Present. 


Past. 


Per/. Participle. 


Present. 


Past. Per/. Participle. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen.f 




cleft, or 


cleft, 


Awake, 


awoke, 


awaked, 
' awoke.* 


Cleave 

(split), 


clove, 
clave,* 


cloven, 
cleaved. 


Be^r am, 


was, 


been. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Bear, bore, 
(!>Hngforth),h2LTe, 


born. 


Crow, 


crowed, or 

crowed, 
crew, 


Bear, 

(carry), 

Beat, 


bore, 
beat, 


borne. 

beaten, 
beat. 


Dare, durst, or 

dared. 
(venture), dared, 

(Dare, to challenge ; regular.) 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


(prin. verb) 


» 




Beget, 
Begin, 


begot, 


begotten, 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


begat,* 
began, 


begot, 
begun. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk, 
drank. 


Bid, 
Bite, 


bid, 


bid, 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


bade, 
bit, 


bidden. 

bitten. 

bit. 


Eat, 
Fall, 


ate, 
eat, 
fell, 


eaten, 

eat.* 

fallen. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 




broke, 


broken, 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Break, 
Chide, 


brake,* 
chid, 


broke.* 
chidden, or 
chid. 


Forget, 
Forsake, 


forgot, 
forsook, 


forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Cleave 
[adhere), 


cleaved, 
clave,* 


cleaved. 


Freight, 


freighted, 


freighted, 
fraught. 







VERBS. 




151 


Present. 


Past 


Perf. Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Participle. 


Get, 

Give, 

Go, 

Grave, 


got, 

gave, 
went, 
graved, 


got, 
gotten, 
given, 
gone, 
graven, R. 


Shake, 
Shape, 

Shave, 


shook, 
shaped, 

shaved, 


shaken. 

shaped, 

shapen.* 

shaved, 

shaven. 


Grow, 
Heave, 


grew, 

heaved, 

hove, 


grown. 

heaved, 

hoven.* 


Shear, 
Show, 


sheared, 

shore,* 

showed, 


shorn, R. 
shown, R. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


Shrink, 
Slay, 


shrunk, 


shrunk, 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, 
hid. 


shrank, 
slew, 


shrunken." 51 
slain. 


Hold, 


held, 


held, 
holden* 


Slide, 


slid, R. 


slidden, 
slid, R. 


Know, 
Lade 


knew, 
laded, 


known, 
laden, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, 
smit.* 


{load), 












Lie, lay, 

{repose), 

(Lie, to speak falsely ; 

Mow, mowed, 


lain. 

regular.) 
mown, R. 


Sing, 
Sink, 


sung, 
sang, 
sunk, 
sank, 


sung, 
sunk. 


Prove, 


proved, 


proved, 
proven. 


Sow, sowed, 
{to scatter seed), 


sown, R. 


Rend, 
Ride, 

Ring, 


rent, 

rode, 

rang, 
rung, 


rent, R.* 

rode, 

ridden. 

rung. 


Speak, 

Spin, 

Spit, 


spoke, 

spake,* 

spun, 

span,* 

spit, 


spoken. 

spun. 

spit. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


spat* 


spitten.* 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, R.* 


(Spit, to pierce with a spit ; regular.) 


Run, 
Saw, 


ran, 
sawed, 


run. 
sawn-, R.* 


Spring, 


sprung, 
sprang, 


sprung. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 
sod,* 


seethed, 
sodden. 


Stride, 


strode, 
strid, 


stridden, 
strid. 



152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Per/. Participle. 

tlirived, 

thriven. 

thrown. 

trodden, 

trod. 

waxed, 

waxen.* 

worn. 
..,* woven, R* 

written. 



* In general, only those irregular verbs are liable to be used improperly, of 
which the past tense and the perfect participle are different in form. R. denotes 
that the regular form may also be used instead of the other. * denotes that the 
form under it is seldom used, being either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. 
The form supposed to be of the best present usage, is placed first. The second 
form of some verbs is preferable when applied in a certain way; as, freighted 
with spices and silks," "fraught with mischief"; " thunderstruck" "sorrow- 
stricken." 

t The pupil may also mention the present participle just before he mentions 
the perfect. 

Write the synopsis of the verb slay with the third person 
plural, through all the moods, in the active voice ; also in 
the passive voice. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, 
stricken. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 
throve, 


Strive, 


strove, R 


./striven, R.* 


Throw, 


threw, 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, R.* 






Swear, 


swore, 

sware,* 


sworn. 


Tread, 
Wax, 


trod, 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R. 


(grow), 


waxed, 


Swim, 


swam, 
swum, 


swum. 


Wear, 
Weave, 


wore, 
wove, R, 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Write, 


wrote, 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 







VERBS. 



153 



LESSON XXXVIII. 
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS-Continued. 

THE TWO PAST OR THREE FORMS ALIKE. 



Present. 


Past. Per/. Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Belay, 


belaid, R. 


belaid, r. 


Bend, 


bent, R. , 


bent, R. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bet, 


bet, R., 


bet, R. 


Betide, 


betided, 
betid* 


betided, 
betid* 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blend. 


blended, 
blent,* 


blended, 
blent.* 


Bless, 


blessed, 
blest, 


blessed, 
blest. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought. 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R.,* 


' built, r. 




burned, 


burned, 


Burn, 


burnt, 


burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R., 


* caught,R. * 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 



Present. 
Clothe, 

Cost, 
Creep, 
Cut, 
Deal, 

Dig, 
Dwell, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Grind, 

Hang, 

Have, 

(priii. verb.) 
Hear, 



Past. Per/. Participle. 

clothed, clothed, 

clad, clad. 

cost, cost. 

crept, crept, 

cut, cut. 

dealt, dealt, 

dug, r., dug, R. 

dwelt, R. dwelt, R. 

dreamed, dreamed, 

dreamt, dreamt, 

dressed, dressed, 

drest,* drest.* 

fed, fed. 

felt, felt, 

fought, fought, 

found, found, 

fled, fled, 

flung, flung, 

gilded, gilded, 

gilt, gilt, 

girt, R., girt, R. 

ground, ground, 

h ung, R. hung, R.* 

had, had. 



heard, 



heard. 



(a.) Hang, hanged, hanged ; to suspend by the neck with intent to kill; but the 
distinction is not always observed. 



154 



ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 



Pres. 


Past. Per/. Participle. 


Present. 


Past. Per/. Participle. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Rap, 


rapped, 


rapped, 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


rapt, 


rapt. c 


Kneel, 


knelt, R. 


knelt, R. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


knit, R. 


Reave,* 


reft, 


reft. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Lean, 


leaned, 


leaned, 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


leant, 


leant. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Leap, 


leaped, 


leaped, 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


leapt,* 


leapt.* 


Set, 


set, 


set. 




learned, 


learned, 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Learn, 


learnt, 


learnt. 


Shine, 


shone, R., 


* shone, R* 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Light, 


lighted, 


lighted, 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


lit, 


lit. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Slit, 


slit, R.,* 


slit, R. 




passed, 


passed, 


Smell, 


smelt, r.. 


smelt, R. 


Pass, 


past,* 


past. b 


Speed, 


sped, R.,* 


sped, r.* 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Spell, 


spelled, 


spelled, 


Pen, 


penned, 


penned, 




spelt, 


spelt. 


{fence in), 


pent, 


pent. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


(Pen, to write ; regular.) 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 




pleaded, 


pleaded, 


Split, 


split, R.,* 


split, R. 


Plead, 


plead* 


plead,* 


Spoil, 


spoiled, 


spoiled, 


^ 


pled,* 


pled* 


spoilt,* 


spoilt.* 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 



(b.) Past is used as an adjective or as a noun. 
(c.) Rap, rapt, rapt ; to seize with rapture. 



VERBS. 



155 



Present^ 


Past 


Stay, 


staid, R. 


String, 


strung, 


Stave, 


stove, R., 


Stand, 


stood, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


Sting, 


stung, 


Sweat, 


sweat, R. 

swet, 


Sweep, 


swept, 


Swing, 


swung, 


Teach, 


taught, 


Tell, 


told, 


Think, 


thought, 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


Wake, 


waked, 
woke,* 


Wed, 


wedded, 
wed* 


Weep, 


wept, 


Wet, 


wet, R. * 



Per/. Participle, 

staid, R. d 
strung, R. e 

stove, R. 

stood. 

stuck. 

stung. 

sweat, R. 

swet. 

swept. 

swung. 

taught. 

told. 

thought. 

thrust. 

waked, 

woke.* 

wedded, 

wed.* 

wept. 

wet, R * 



Past 

won, 
wound, 
worked, 
wrought, 
wrung, 



won. 

wound. 

worked, 

wrought. 

wrung. 



Present. 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Beware, 

Can, 

May, 

Must, 

Ought, 

(wanting,) 

Shall, 

Will, « 

(Will, wish, 

Wit, 

Wot,* 

Wis,* 

Weet,* 



Most of the verbs that have no partici. 
pies, are auxiliary verbs. 



(wanting,) (wanting.) 
could, " 

might, " 
must, " 

ought, " 

quoth, " 

should, " 
would, " 

bequeath; regular.) 




(d.) Stay, stayed, stayed; to cause to stop, (e.) Stringed instruments. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXXIX. 

1. How many and what tenses has the indicative 
mood? 

2. How is the present-perfect tense, indicative 
mood formed ? The past-perfect ? Future ? Future- 
perfect ? 

3. How many, and what tenses, has the subjunc- 
tive mood ? 

4. What conjunctions are signs of the subjunctive 
mood? 

5. How many, and what tenses, has the potential 
mood? 

6. How is the present tense, potential mood 
formed? The present-perfect? The past? The 
past-perfect ? 

7. What is the conjugation of a verb ? 

8. What is a synopsis of a verb ? 

9. How is a verb conjugated in the passive voice? 

10. How is a verb conjugated in the progressive 
form? 

11. How is a verb conjugated to express the pro- 
gressive passive sense ? In what moods and tenses is 
a verb thus used ? 

12. How is a verb conjugated negatively ? Give an 
example. 

13. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively? 
Give an example. 



VERBS. 15? 

14. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and 
negatively? Give an example. 

15. What is a redundant verb? Give an example. 

16. What is a defective verb? 

17. Mention the principal defective verbs. 

18. When is ought in the present tense ? When in 
the past tense ? 

19. How is wit sometimes used? Quoth? Worth? 
Wont ? 

20. What are the principal parts of a verb? 

21. Give a synopsis of see, through both voices, with 
I, you, and he. 

22. Give, in like manner, the synopsis of love, bind, 
carry and permit. 

23. Give, in the order of the conjugation, the infini- 
tives, first in the active voice, and then in the passive, 
of move, degrade, drown, invigorate. Give the partici- 
ples also. 

24. Tell the mood and tense of each of the following 
verbs : 

I had been studying. We have lost it. If I be invited. 
You should have come. It is rising. Were I invited I 
should go. She must have seen the book. We are com- 
ing. They suffered. You did take the book. I do know 
whereof I speak. He has learned to be diligent. Yon 
ought to have come directly home. Work while the day 
lasts. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the verbs ; 
tell whether the verbs are regular or irregular, transitive or 



158 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



intransitive, with active or passive voice; give mood, tense, 
person, and number : 

A fierce dog caught the robber. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. A fierce dog is the subject, 
caught the robber is the predicate. Dog is the subject-nominative ; 
it is modified by the article a and the adjective fierce. Caught is the 
predicate- verb, and is modified by the objective element robber, 
which is modified by the article the. Caught is an irregular transi- 
tive verb ; principal parts, catch, caught, catching, caught ; active 
voice, indicative mood, past tense, and agrees with its subject dog in 
the third person, singular number. Rule. — A finite verb must 
agree with its subject in person and number. 

A cloud is passing over us. 

The place was covered with flowers. 

We have learned our lessons. 

The hunters had killed a grizzly bear. 

We shall visit our English cousins next year. 

" Will you walk into my parlor ? " said a spider to a fly. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, in which the dependent 
clause is the object of said. A spider is the subject of the principal 
clause ; said is the predicate- verb, and is modified by the adverbial 
adjunct to a fly, and the objective clause will you, etc. You is the 
subject of the dependent clause, will walk is the predicate-verb, 
which is modified by the adverbial phrase into my parlor ; parlor is 
the principal word of the phrase, and is modified by the possessive 
my, and governed by into. 

You may walk into the garden, but you must not pluck 
the flowers. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two co-ordinate clause? 
connected by but. 

A good resolution should not be broken. 



VERBS. 159 

If a horse could have been procured, we would have 
sent him. 

If he be chosen, he will serve. 

Were you with him, he would be content. 

If they had fought more bravely, the victory would 
have been ours. 

Do not give a poor man a stone, when he asks for 
bread. 

You came here to work, not to play. 

The poem was to be published. 

The house is estimated to have cost fifty thousand dol- 
lars. 

To work is better than to starve. 

This is a complex sentence, with the dependent clause incor- 
porated in the principal predicate. To work is a present infinitive 
used as a noun, and is the subject nominative of is, the predicate- 
verb, which is modified by the attribute clause better than to starve ; 
better is the principal word, and is modified by the clause than to 
starve (is); than is a conjunction, and connects the clauses. To 
starve is used as a noun, the subject of a verb understood. 

James ran fast, pursuing John, and pursued by us. 
Having written his letter, he sealed it. 
Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 
His lessons having been thoroughly learned, he was 
ready for the examination. 

Considering his age, he is far advanced. 
Considering relates to we. We think, considering, etc. 

She was punished for having torn her book. 

A participle may govern a noun in the objective case, and be itse 7 ' 
governed by a preposition. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XL. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following 
sentences : 

IMPROPER USE OF WORDS. 

We were setting round the fire. 
He laid down to take a nap. 
He flew with his family to America. 
Can you learn me to write ? 
He was much effected by the news. 
I expect it rained yesterday. 
We suspect the trip will afford us great pleasure. 
I love milk better than coffee. 

Morse discovered the telegraph, and Harvey invented 
the circulation of the blood. 
Carry the horse to water. 
I didn't go to do it. 
We were falling trees to build a house. 
He knowed more than he said. 
A line was drawed under it. 
The warning was not taken heed of. 
The book was give to me. 
You had not ought to have done so. 
We be all of us from York State. 
You might have went yourself. 
He begun well, but ended badly. 
I never seen anything of it. 
They done the best they could. 
The tree had fell, and all of its branches were broke. 



VERBS. 161 

I seen the limb tore off by the wind. 

We will suffer from cold unless we go better protected. 

The drowning foreigner said: "I will be drowned, 
nobody shall help me." 

Queen Isabella promised a pension to the first seaman 
that would discover land. 

Would implies inclination, could, ability, should expresses futurity 
and duty. 

Shall he find any gold there? 
I would have been much obliged to you. 
He should be obliged to you if you would help him. 
I was afraid I would lose all the capital I had invested. 
Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons as well as 
any other boy in school. 

Errors ik Tense. 

Our teacher told us that the air had weight (when ?) 

Keats said that truth was beauty, and beauty was truth. 

The teacher insisted that the article was a mere adjective. 

I very much wished to have gone, but mother could not 
spare me. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have 
done. 

We hoped to have had the pleasure of a visit from you. 

Errors in Person and Number. 
I called, but you was not at home. 
My outlays is greater than my income. 
He dare not say it to my face. 
Such a temper need to be corrected. 
Thou art the friend that hast often relieved me. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The molasses are excellent. 

If a man have built a house, the house is his. 

Has the horses been fed ? 

What have become of your promises ? 

Six is too many to ride in the boat at the same time. 

On each side of the river was ridges of hills. 

There seems to be no others included. 

There was no memoranda kept of the sales. 

Every one of the witnesses testify to the same thing. 

Every one of us have as much as he can do. 

Neither of us have a dollar left. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

A committee were appointed to examine the accounts. 

The greater part of the audience was pleased. 

The public is respectfully invited. 

The legislature have adjourned. 

The company were chartered last winter. 

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure. 

Does the multitude as one tiling, or as individuals, pursue pleasure? 

228* "When two or more singular subjects are con- 
nected by and they require a plural verb ; when con- 
nected by or or nor they require a singular verb. 

Mary and her cousin was at our house. 

Neither Mary nor her cousin were at our house last 
week. 

Enough ingenuity and labor has been bestowed to make 
this enterprise successful. 

Man's happiness or misery are, m a great measure, put 
into his own hands. 



ADVERBS. 163 

Wisdom, virtue, and happiness, dwells with the me- 
diocrity. 
And so was also you and I. 
Time and tide waits for no man. 
There was not a little wit and sarcasm in his reply. 
Either Thomas or George have to stay at home. 
It is honor, false honor that produce so many quarrels. 
Every one of these houses have been lately built. 



LESSON XLI. 
ADVERBS. 

229. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

230. Adverbs are divided into five classes ; manner, 
place, lime, degree, and modal. 

231. A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb that 
usually connects two clauses, by relating to a word in 
one and forming a part of the other. 

When, while, as, before, till, ere, 

where, why, how, after, since, whereby, etc. 

" The seed grew up ivhere it fell." 

Where relates to grew and/6^, or it joins to the word grew a clause 
denoting place. " The seed grew up from the place \ on which it fell." 
Where is thus resolved into two phrases, which attach themselves 
respectively to each of the clauses, and the latter of which has a 
relative pronoun. 

Sometimes a conjunctive adverb joins a phrase to some word or 
clause, instead of uniting two clauses. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

232. The clause which has the conjunctive adverb, 
is used in the sense of an adverb, an adjective, or a 
noun. 

" You speak of it a s you understand it." How ? 

" In the grave ivher e our hero was buried" What 
grave ? 

"I saw how a pin is made" I saw what ? 
A conjunctive adverb shows merely whether its clause expresses 
manner, time, place, or identity ; and it is sometimes essentially a 
preposition or a conjunction. 

Most adverbs are derived from adjectives, by annexing 
ly ; but sometimes the same word or form can be used 
either as an adjective or as an adverb. 

Ex. — Slow, slowly; careful, carefully. No, letter, best, 
more, most, less, least, early, hard, long, ill, well, like, very, 
yonder, and many other words, can be used either as 
adjectives or as adverbs. 

233. To express manner or describe the act, the 
advgrb should be used; to describe the object, the 
adjective. 

" Things look [are] favorable this morning. " adj. 
"He looks skillfully at the moon, through his tele- 
scope." How ? 
" We arrived safe." i. e., we were safe when we arrived. 

Correct the folloiving sentences : 
Let him do it agreeable to your wishes. 
Such notes sound harshly to our ears. 
The fur of the seal feels very smoothly. 



I 






ADVERBS. 165 

She looks beautifully. 

These appear to be done the neatest (the most neatly). 

He acted much wiser than his brother. 

He speaks very fluent, and reasons plausible. 

She was scarce gone, when they came. 

234. Adverbs are compared like adjectives ; except 
that a smaller number can be compared, and that these 
are more commonly compared by more and most 

Regular. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. Wisely, less wisely, least wisely. 

Long, longer, longest. Wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Early, earlier, earliest. Foolish\y,more foolishly, most foolishly. 

Irregular. 

Well, better, best. Little, less, least. 

Badly or ill, worse, worst. Forth, further, furthest. 

Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest 

Compare the foregoing adverbs with the adjectives on p. 104. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
1. Adverbs of Manner. 

otherwise, separately, aloud, in vain, 

headlong, together, apart, in brief, 

fast, somehow, asunder, happily, 

slowly, however, amiss, trippingly c 

Most words that end with ly, are adverbs of manner. 
Adverbs of manner answer to the question How ? 

2. Adverbs of Place. 

Here, thence, whither, nowhere, away, in, out, 

there, whence, herein, everywhere, aside, back, 

where, hither, therein, yonder, aloof, forth, 

hence, thither, wherein, far, off, up, down, forwards. 



So, 


well, 


as, 


ill, 


thus, 


like, 


how, 


else, 



166 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Now, 


always, after, 


sometimes, 


to-morrow, 


since, 


when, 


already, lately, 


seldom, 


yesterday, 


till, 


then, 


as, early, 


daily, 


immediately, 


yet, 


ever, 


while, again, 


forever, 


hitherto, 


just, 


never, 


before, often, 


to-day, 


hereafter, 


anon. 



Adverbs of place answer to the question Where ? Whence 9 
or Whither ? and hence imply position or direction. 

3. Adverbs of Time. 
sometimes, to-m 
seldom, yeste 

daily, imm 

forever, hith( 

to-day, here! 

Adverbs of time answer to the question When ? How 
long ? How often ? Hoio soon ? or How long ago ? and 
hence they denote present time, future time, relative time, 
duration, or repetition. 

Adverbs of Number. — Once, twice, thrice. These 
denote time. 

Adverbs of Order. — First, secondly, thirdly, etc. 
These denote either place or time. 

4. Adverbs of Degree. Extent, or Quantity. 



Much, 


less, 


so, 


wholly, 


even, 


chiefly, 


more, 


least, 


just. 


partly, 


how, 


nearly, 


most, 


very, 


fully, 


all, 


however, 


well-nigh, 


mostly, 


too, 


full, 


quite, 


enough, 


ever so, 


little, 


as, 


generally, scarcely, 


nevertheless, 


somewhat. 



5. Modal Adverbs. 

These show how the statement is made or regarded. 

Of Affirmation or Approval. — Yes, yea, ay, verity, 
surely, certainly, forsooth, indeed, truly, really, amen, of 
course, to be sure. 

Of Negation. — Not, nay, no, nowise, by no means. 

Of Doubt. — Perhaps, probably, perchance, may-be, 
haply. 



PREPOSITIONS. 167 

Of Cause or Means. — Why, therefore, wherefore, 
hereby, thereby, whereby, wherewith, whereof, accord- 
ingly, consequently, hence, thence, whence, etc. 

Rule.-i^ adverb belongs to the word, phrase, 
or clause to which it relates. 

Parse all the zoords in the following sentences: 
" But yesterday, the word of Csesar might 
Have stood against the world: now lies he there, 
And none so poor to do him reverence." — Shakespeare. 
" Honor and shame from no condition rise ; 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies." — Pope. 
" Who love too much, hate in the like extreme." 
" Alone ! that worn-out word, 
So idly spoken and so coldly heard." 



LESSON XLII. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

235. A Preposition is a word used to show the re- 
lation between a following noun or pronoun and some 
other word. 

" The rabbit in the hollow tree was caught." What, in 
what? 

The substantive after the preposition must be in the 
objective case. 

236. Two prepositions are sometimes combined, and 
used as one ; and some phrases are generally used as 
prepositions. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Upon, according to, as to, as for. 

" The river flowed from under the palaces. " 
Such phrases are sometimes called complex or compound 
prepositions. 

237. A Prepositional Phrase is a preposition with 
its object, or with the words required after it to com- 
plete the sense, and is an adjective or adverbial 
adjunct. 

Ex. — "The wind swept in waves \ over the bristling 
larleyP 

Such adjuncts generally show where, when, hoiv, hozv 
long, of what hind, iy whom, by what means, etc. 

{under the bluff 
before sunrise, 
by our dogs" 

238. A preposition that has no word to govern, be- 
comes an adverb; sometimes, a noun or an adjective. 
Ex. — " The eagle flew up, then round, then down again." 

"It fell from above" "It came from within." 
Above is a noun, or from above can be parsed as an adverbial 

phrase. 
R,ixle.— A preposition shows the relation of an 

object to some other word on which the adjunct 

depends. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences illus- 
trating the use of prepositions : 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A. — "We went a fishing." "This set people a think- 
ing." — Swift. 



PREPOSITIONS. 169 

Aboakd. — "He went aboard the ship." 
About. — "He wished to run about the house." 
Above. — "The stars above us." "I thought he was 
above such meanness." 

Across. — " We came to a tree lying across the road." 
After. — " We determined to start after dinner." 
Against. — " We rowed against the stream." 
Along. — "The cloud is gilded along the border." 
Amid, amidst. — " The rogues escaped amidst the con- 
fusion." 
Among, amongst. — "Flowers perish among weeds." 
Around, round. — "The ring around his finger was 
given to him by his mother." 

At. — "She lives at home." "The sun sets at six 
o'clock." 

Athwart. — " Why advance thy miscreated front 
athwart my way ? " 

Before. — " The tree before the house was an oakv" 
Behind. — " The squirrel hid behind the -tree." 
Below. — "The James Kiver is very crooked leloio 
Kichmond." 

Beneath. — "The chasm beneath us was dark and inac- 
cessible." "He is beneath contempt." 

Beside, besides. — " A large sycamore grew beside the 
river." 

Between.— " The river flows between two hills." 
Betwixt. — "He was crushed to death betwixt two 
cars." 

Beyond. — " The life beyond the grave is a mystery." 
But. — "Whence all but him had fled." 
8 



^70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

By.— "A lily grew %a brook." "The fort was de- 
molished by soldiers." 
Conceding. — " He spoke concerning virtue." 
Down. — " The boat went down the river." 
During. — " He remained abroad during the war." 
Ere. — " He came ere noon." 

Except, excepting^ — " All except him were set free." 
For. — " A collection for the poor was taken up." 
From. — "There lay a branch from the tree." 
In. — "He was accustomed to play in the afternoon." 
Into. — " We step into a carriage, and then ride in it." 
Notwithstanding. — " He succeeded notwithstanding 

the opposition." 

Of. — "It was the house o/a friend." "He was left to 

die of hunger." 

Off. — "Juan Fernandez lies off the coast of Chili." 
On. — " The picture on the wall is a likeness of Kaphael.' ; 
Over. — " The bridge over the river Wcis built of stone/ 1 
Past. — " They drove past the house." 
Eespecting. — " Respecting his conduct, there is but 

one opinion." 

Save.—" All save him remained." 

Since. — " He has not been here since la^t Christmas." 

Till, until. — "He will remain here till next Christ' 

mas." 

To, unto. — " He started to go to the river." " Verily, 

I say unto you." 

Toward, towards. — " He came toioards me." 
Through.— -"The hunter travels through woods and 

swamps." 



PREPOSITIONS. 171 

Throughout. — " There was commotion thi*oughout the 

whole land." 
Under. — "The earth under our feet was shaken." 

" The youth was under age." 
Underneath. — " Underneath this sable hearse lies the 

subject of all verse." 
Up. — " He climbed up the tree." 
Upon. — " The people stood upon the house-tops." 
With. — " There were girls with sparkling eyes." "The 

yase was filled with flowers." 

Within. — "The war will end within the next six 

months." 

Without. — "I have a purse ivithout money." "He 

does not wish to live without company." 
According to. — " It was done according to law." 
Contrary to. — "He has acted contrary to orders." 
As to. — "As to your case, nothing was said." 
From beyond. — "They came from beyond Jordan." 
From out. — " From out thy slime the monsters of the 

deep are made." 

In stead of. — "Take this horse in stead of that." 

Better, in stead of as "in place of" "in lieu of" " in my 

stead" "hit this in stead." Stead is a noun. 

Out of. — "The bucket was drawn out of a well/' 

" This piano is out o/tune." 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIII. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

239. A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. 

Ex. — "The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades." — 
Pope. 

"John and James are happy because they are good." 

240. Conjunctions not only connect parts of a sen- 
tence, but they also show how the connected parts are 
related or regarded. 

" Dear, because worthless." " Read and write " ; " Read 
or write." 

241. Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, 
and used as one ; and sometimes a common phrase is 
used as a conjunction. 

"And yet I would not get riches thus, even if I were a 
beggar." 

"John, as well as Arthur, must be punished, inasmuch 
as they have both been disobedient." 

242. A Corresponding Conjunction, or Correlative 
Connective, is one of a separated pair that connect the 
same parts. 

Ex. — " Neither flattery nor threats could prevail." 
Neither is a corresponding conjunction, the correspondent of nor, 
which it helps to connect the words, flattery and threats. Some- 
times the connectives so and as, as and as, or rather and than, stand 



CONJUNCTIONS. 173 

next to each other; but they still belong to different clauses 
or phrases. 

243. And, or, and nor, are the chief conjunctions ; 
and they are mostly used for connecting words or 
phrases. 

Ex. — "Bees and blossoms." "Bees or blossoms." 
" Neither bees nor blossoms." 

244. But, if, and that, are the next most important 
conjunctions ; and they are mostly used for connect- 
ing clauses. 

Ex. "She tries a thousand arts, but none succeed." — 
Youkg. 

245. Co-ordinate Conjunctions join the parts of 
compound phrases or sentences — they join parts of 
equal rank. 

Ex. — And, but, or, nor, still, though, unless, yet. 

246. Subordinate Conjunctions join the parts of 
complex phrases or sentences — they join parts of un- 
equal rank. 

Ex. — Because, except, if, lest, since, than, though, 
whether. 

Rule,— Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
clauses, or sentences. 

Parse the words in the following sentences illustrating 
the use of conjunctions : 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LIST OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

As well as ; copulative ; co-ordinate. " He, as well as 
I, was deceived. 

Because; causal ; subordinate. "Success is difficult, 
because many strive." 

But; adversative; co-ordinate. "I go, but I return." 

Except ; restrictive ; subordinate. " He is sane, except 
when he talks of politics." 

Except ; conditional ; subordinate. " Except a man be 
born again," etc. 

Fok ; causal ; subordinate, sometimes co-ordinate. " Eise, 
for it is day " 

Furthermore; copulative; co-ordinate. 
It sometimes begins a paragraph. 

If; conditional; subordinate. "If the advice is good, 
take it." 

Lest; cautionary or causal ; subordinate. "Touch it 
not, lest ye die." . • 

Notwithstanding ; adversative and co-ordinate, or con- 
cessive and subordinate. 

Notwithstanding, when used in the sense of " still, 
however," is co-ordinate ; when used in the sense of " even 
if," subordinate. 

Moreover ; copulative ; co-ordinate. 

It sometimes begins a paragraph. 

Nor; disjunctive; co-ordinate. "He said nothing 
more, nor did I." 

Or; disjunctive; co-ordinate. "We must educate, or 
we must perish." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 1 T5 

Provided; conditional; subordinate. " I will go, pro- 
vided you go." 

Since; causal ; subordinate. " Since you have come, I 
will go." 

Still; adversative; co-ordinate. "He has often failed, 
still he strives." 

Than ; comparative ; subordinate. " Performance is 
better than promising." 

That; final; subordinate. "He studies, that he may 
learn. For what end ? 

That ; demonstrative ; subordinate. " Th a t \ the war 
is a calamity , is admitted." "It is admitted that \ the 
war is a calamity." " We all know that \ the war is a 
calamity." 

Then ; illative ; co-ordinate. " The cotton is yours ? 
then defend it." 

Though, although, sometimes what though ; conces- 
sive, subordinate. "Though he owns but little, he owes 
nothing." 

Unless; conditional ; subordinate. " Unless you study, 
you will not learn." 

Unless; adversative; co-ordinate. "Eemain, unless 
you must go." 

Whether ; indeterminate ; subordinate. " I will see 
whether he has come." Whether, and not if, should begin 
an intermediate clause used as a noun. Nobody knows 
whether the war will end soon. I will see whether he has 
come. 

Whereas; causal; subordinate. " Whereas it doth 
appear," etc. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Whereas; adversative; co-ordinate. "Keason errs; 
whereas instinct," etc. 

Yet; adversative ; co-ordinate. "All dread death, yet 
few are pious." 

The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, or, nor, 
and but. 

The principal subordinate conjunctions are that, than, 
as, if, and because. 

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTIVES. 

Both — and. " It is both mine and yours." 
Either — or. " It is either mine or yours." 
. Neither — nor. "It is neither mine nor yours." 
Whether — or. " I know not whether it is mine or 

yours." 

TnOUGH, ALTHOUGH — YET, NEVERTHELESS. " The 

river, though deep, was yet clear." " Though deep, yet 
clear." 

If — then. " If you have no confidence, then do not 
venture." 

As — as ; equality. " Time is as precious as gold." 

As — so ; equality. " As the one dies, so dies the other." 

So — as ; consequence. " It is so plain as to require no 
explanation." 

So — that; consequence. "The road was so muddy 
that we returned." 

Not only — but also. "He is not only bold, but he is 
also cautious." 

Or — or ; sometimes used by poets in stead of either — or. 

Nor — nor ; sometimes used by poets in stead of neither 
— nor. 



INTERJECTIONS. 177 

LESSON XLIV. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

247* An Interjection is a word that expresses an 
emotion, and is not connected in construction with 
p,ny other word. 

Ex. — a € O, stay ! ' the maiden said, * and rest' " — Long- 
fellow. 

Omit 0, and the sentence will still make good sense 
without it 

248. Words from almost every other part of speech, 
and sometimes entire phrases, when abruptly uttered 
to express emotion, may become interjections. 

Ex. — Strange! behold! what! why! indeed! mercy! 
" Why, there, there, there ! " 

" Fire and brimstone ! what have you been doing ?" 
But when it is not the chief purpose of such a word to 
express emotion, and when the omitted words are obvious, 
the word should be parsed as usual ; as, " Patience, good 
lady! comfort, gentle Constance! "=Have patience, good 
lady ! receive comfort, gentle Constance ! 

249. Words used in speaking to the inferior ani- 
mals, and imitative words or syllables that are uttered 
with emotion, are generally interjections. 

Ex. — Haw! gee! whoh! scat! whist! ? st, 'st! 
"The words are fine; but as to the sense — b-a-h!" 



178 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



"Up comes a man on a sudden, slap, dashj" 
"Be sure that you blow out the candle, — 
Rifol de vol tol de rol MP — Horace Smith. 

250. A substantive after an interjection is inde- 
pendent, or else its case depends on some word under- 
stood. 

Ex.— "0 thou!" "Ah me!" "0 happy we!" 



LESSON XLIV. 
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

1. What is an adverb ? 

2. How many, and what classes of adverbs are 
there? 

3. What is a conjunctive adverb ? 

4. How is the clause used that has the conjunctive 
adverb ? 

5. From what are most adverbs derived? how? 

6. When should the adverb be used ? and when the 
adjective ? 

7. What is said of the comparison of adverbs ? 

8. Mention the five classes of adverbs. 

9. How may adverbs of manner be distinguished ? 

10. Of place? of time? of degree, extent or quan- 
tity? 

11. What do modal adverbs show ? 

12. Give the rule of syntax relating to adverbs. 



REVIEW. 179 

13. What is a preposition ? 

14. What is a prepositional phrase? 

15. What is said of a preposition that has no word 
to govern? 

16. Give the rule of syntax relating to prepositions. 

17. What is a conjunction? 

18. What do conjunctions show? 

19* What is said of the union of two conjunctions ? 

20. What is a corresponding or correlative conjunc- 
tion? 

21. Which are the chief conjunctions? and how 
used? 

22. Which are the next most important conjunc- 
tions ? and how used ? 

23. What are co-ordinate conjunctions ? 

24. Mention eight co-ordinate conjunctions. 

25. What are subordinate conjunctions ? 

26. Mention eight subordinate conjunctions. 

27. Give the rule of syntax relating to conjunctions. 

28. What is an interjection? 

29. What is said of words and phrases becoming 
interjections ? 

30. What is said of words or syllables addressed to 
the inferior animals ? 

31. What is said of a substantive (noun) after an 
interjection ? 

32. In parsing interjections, what rule of syntax 
may be given ? Arts. An interjection has no gram- 
matical connection with other words. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a 
finite verb, must be in the nominative case. 
II. A noun or pronoun used independently or abso- 
lutely must be in the nominative case. 

III. A noun or pronoun that limits the meaning oi 

another noun by denoting possession, must 
be in the possessive case. 

IV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 

transitive verb must be in the objective 
case. 
V. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 

preposition must be in the objective case* 
VI. Intransitive and passive verbs take the same 
case after as before them, when both words 
refer to the same person or thing. 
VII. A noun or pronoun used to explain a preceding 
noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the 
same case. 
VIII. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender, person, and number* 

IX. An infinitive depends on the word which it 

limits, or which leads to its use* 

X, A participle relates to a noun or pronoun; 

and it is sometimes governed by a prepo- 
sition. 
XI. A finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 



■ 



ANALYSTS AND PARSING. 181 

XII. An article or an adjective relates to the noun 
or pronoun which it limits or describes. 
jLQL An adverb belongs to the word, phrase or clause 
to which it relates. 

XIV. A preposition shows the relation of an object 

to some other word on which the adjunct 
depends. 

XV. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses 

or sentences. 
XVI. Interjections have no grammatical connection 
with other words. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In written exercises, indicate the members or principal sub- 
divisions of compound sentences by the numerals 1, 2, 3 ; the simple 
co-ordinate clauses, by the capital letters A, B, C; the principal 
clause of each complex sentence, by the small letters a, b, or c ; and 
the dependent clauses by a', b', c', a" b,", c", according to the order of 
their dependence. 

Use obvious abbreviations for terms used in analysis and parsing, 
as sen. sentence, sub. subject, pred. predicate, ad. adjunct, att. attri- 
bute, adj. adjective, adv. adverb, adverbial, decl. declarative, imp. 
imperative, int. interrogative, ind. indicative, pot. potential, subj. 
subjunctive, inf. infinitive, part, participle, agr. agrees, rel. relates, 
relative, mod. modifies, etc. 

The cottage stood where the mountain shadows fell 
when the sun was declining. 

This is a complex decl. sen. consisting of a prin. and two dep, 
clauses : 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a, The cottage stood 

a', where the mountain shadows fell, 

a", when the sun was declining. 

Heaven has imprinted in the mother's face something 
that claims kindred with the skies. 

A desire to see once more our native land, induced us to 
attempt the journey. 

That you may be honored, be deserving of honor. 

Who could guess 
If evermore should meet those mutual eyes, 
Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise ? 
Who is an int. pro., 3d p. sing. num. and nom. case to could guess. 
Could guess is a reg. trans, vb., act. v., pot. m., past t., and agr. 
with who in the 3d p. sing. num. Rule. — A finite vb., etc. 
If is a sub. conj . and connects the two clauses. 
Evermore is an adv. of time, and rel. to should meet. 
Should meet is a reg. int. vb., pot. m., past t., and agr. with eyes in 
the 3d p. plu. num. Rule. 

Those is a pron. adj. and rel. to eyes. 
Mutual is a com. adj. and rel. to eyes. 

Eyes is a com. n. 3d p. plu. num. neu. gen. and nom. c. to should 
meet. 

Whom have they elected President ? 
" From crag to crag, the rattling peaks among, leaps the 
live thunder." 

" You all did see, that on the Lupercal 
I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 
Which he did thrice refuse." 
What by entreaty and what by threatening I at 
last succeeded. 

Note. — What is used here in the sense of partly, and is an ad- 
verb. Sometimes what is an adjective. What news have you? 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 183 

"A little fire is quickly trodden out 
Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench." 

" Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, 
Than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." 

I shall know but one country. The ends I aim at shall 
be "My Country's, My God's, and Truth's." 

Romans, Countrymen, and Lovers! hear me for my 
cause ; and be silent, that you may hear : believe me for 
mine honor; and have respect unto mine honor, that you 
may believe: censure me in your wisdom; and awake 
your senses, that you may the better judge. 

This is a compound sentence, composed of three members, each 
of which is also compound, consisting of a simple and a complex 
clause. Romans, Countrymen, and Lovers, are each in the nom. ind. 
by direct address. 

f A. Hear me for my cause ; 
and be silent, 
that you may hear ; 

{B. believe me for mine honor, 
b. and have respect unto mine honor, 
b'. that you may believe ;. 
{C. censure me in your wisdom ; 
c. and awake your senses, 
c'. that you may the better judge. 

A. You (understood) is the sub., hear me for my cause is the 
pred. ; hear the pred. vb. is mod. by the obj . me, and the adv. ad. 
for my cause ; cause is mod. by my and gov. by for : 

a. And is the connective, you is the sub., be silent that, etc. is the 
pred. ; be the pred. vb. is mod. by the att. silent, which is mod. by 
the adv. ad. that you may hear. 

a'. TliM is the connective, you is the sub., may hear is the pred. 



lJ a. 

[a. 



184 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The child fell into the water, and when taken out did 
not come to for a long time. 

Note. — Bid come to is really the pred. vb. ; to in sense is a part 
of the verb, but in parsing the words separately it should be called 
an adverb. There are many examples of this kind, as, To get rid of, 
to act up to, to bring to, to come by, etc. 

He struck the stone such a blow that it was crushed tc 
pieces. 

They remained to see what was done. 
" All nature is but art unknown to thee, 
All chance, direction which thou canst not see, 
All discord, harmony not understood, 
All partial evil, universal good." — Pope. 
Note. — But is 'used in the sense of only, an adverb; the verb 
must be supplied in the last three lines. 

"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak 

and weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten 

lore, — 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a 

tapping, 
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber 
door." — Poe. 
This is a complex decl. sen., consisting of a prin. and two dep. 
clauses. 

a. There came a tapping, suddenly, once upon a midnight 
dreary, as of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door, 
a'. While I, weak and weary, pondered over many a quaint and 
curious volume of forgotten lore. 

2 a'. While I nodded, nearly napping. 

(a.) Tapping, the sub. nom., is mod. by the adj. ads. a, and as used 
m the sense of Uke ; as is mod. by the adv. phrase of some one, 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 185 

etc. ; one, the prin. word, is gov. by of, and mod. by the adj. ads. 
some, rapping, and rapping at my chamber door; the part, rap- 
ping is mod. by gently, the second rapping by the adv. ad. at my 
chamber door ; door, the prin. word, is mod. by the poss. my and the 
adj. chamber, and is gov. by the prep. at. Game, the pred. vb. is 
mod. by the adv. adjuncts once upon a midnight dreary, suddenly, 
and the two dep. adv. clauses. There is an expletive. 

" What's in a name ? that which we call a rose, 
By any other name would smell as sweet." 

" She walks in beauty like the night (like to) 
Of cloudless climes and starry skies. 
And all that's best of dark and bright, 
Meet in her aspect and her eyes." 

Note. — The preposition is often omitted after the adjectives near, 
nigh, like, opposite, and verbs of giving or imparting. 

The more you study grammar the better yoi* will like it. 

The before comparatives and superlatives is used adverbially. 
The more, the better, are adverbial phrases ; the words parsed sepa- 
rately are adverbs. 

It was well for him to die at his post with his armor on. 

This is a simple decl. sen. It is the grammatical sub. and repre- 
sents the real sub., which is the compound phrase for him to die at 
his post with his armor on ; was well is the pred. Him is the ob. of 
for, and is mod. by the inf. phrase to die at his post with his armor 
on; to die relates to him, and is mod. by the adv. adjuncts at his 
vast and with his armor on ; post is the ob. of at, and is mod. by his ; 
irmor is the ob. of with, and is mod. by the adj. adjuncts his and on ; 
on is a prep., and governs him understood. 

Having declined the proposal, I determined on a course 
suited to my own taste. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Night's candles are burnt out and jocund day stands 
tiptoe on the misty mountain's top. 

Wheat is worth a dollar a bushel. 

Note. — Worth signifies of the value of; it is an adjective in sense, 
but involves the idea of a preposition, and a noun following it may 
be parsed in the objective case after worth, or if preferred in the ob- 
jective case without a preposition. 

" What wonder when 
Millions of fierce encountering angels fought 
On either side, the least of whom could wield 
These elements, and arm him with the force 
Of all their regions ? " 

€i Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad." 

" The thunder rolls : be hushed the prostrate world 
While cjoud to cloud returns the solemn hymn." 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Correct the folloiving sentences and give the reasons : 
He was superintendent of an hospital for the insane. 
A should be used before nouns beginning with a consonant sound . 
therefore an hospital should be a hospital. 

The man was a hostler. 

James told us an humorous story. 

What is the difference between the old and new book. 

When two or more adjectives connected by and, relate to the 
same noun, the article should be placed before the first adjective : 



FALSE SYNTAX. 1ST 

but when they relate to different nouns, the article should be placed 
before each one. Therefore the old and new should be the old and 
the new. 

I have both a large and small dictionary. 

Them that study will learn. 

He and me will study from the same book. 

We saw the soldiers, they that were marching down 
Broadway. 

TJiey should be them. An explanatory noun or pronoun is put by 
apposition in tlie same case. 

Books of these sort are quickly read. 

These should be this, to correspond with the number of the noun. 
Tins and thai, plural these and those, must agree in number with the 
nouns to which they relate. 

That scissors were imported. 

Which is the greatest of the two ? 

Which is the more important island, Cuba, Hayti, or 
Jamaica ? 

Russia is more extensive than any European state. 

Any European state should be any other European state; since 
Russia could not be more extensive than itself. When two things 
are compared, the former term of comparison should not be included 
in the latter. 

Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. 
They met agreeable to their engagement. 
You can have neither of these three books. 
You may choose either of the days of the week for ar 
holiday. 

I am exceeding glad to meet you. 
The copy was uncommon well written. 
He acted much wiser than he thought 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We caught them fish in the river. 

Note. — Them is never an adjective, and should not be used 
for these or those. 

The poor cannot have the luxuries the rich enjoy, but 
we need not conclude that those are happy and these mis- 
erable. 

Transpose those and these. In contrasting that and this, those and 
these, that and those refer to the more distant terms, this and these to 
the nearer. 

Let either of them speak in their turn. 

Their should be his. Each, either, and neither are singular (each 
one, either one, neither one) ; and pronouns must agree with the 
nouns which they represent in person and number. 

Are either of these men known ? 
Each of them wrote their exercises. 
Some offenses are deserving punishment. 

Of should be inserted before punishment. 

A participial adjective or participial noun cannot govern a nouu 
or pronoun in the objective case. A participial adjective has the 
form of a participle, but rejects the idea of time. 

Every one must choose their own way. 

When we see a person prosperous we are apt to envy 
them. 

Every man should provide for their families. 

Those which desire to learn should be diligent. 

Send the multitude away that it may go and buy itself 
food. 

If a telescope is inverted, objects seen through it will be 
diminished. x 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have 
clone. 



FALSE SYNTAX* 189 

If he understands the lesson and study it he will not be 
deficient. 

Xote. — ^lien two or more verbs relate to the same subject, they 
should agree in mood, teuse, and form, or have separate nomi- 
natives. 

Honesty is universally commended, and would be prac- 
ticed if men were wise. (It would be. etc.) 
All their neighbors were not invited. 
Not all their neighbors were invited. 

Adverbs should be so placed in the sentence as to make it correct, 
clear and elegant. 

I only recited one lesson during the day. 
I only bought the horse and not the boggy. 

..■ O DO. 

The farmers sell their produce generally to the mer- 
chants. 

He rode to town and drove twelve cows on horseback. 

There was another pupil still who did not know his 
lesson. 

I will never do so no more. 

None. — Avoid double negatives ; they contradict each other. 

TTe didn't find nobody at home. 

You don't know nothing about it. 

He wondered that none of the teachers had never seen 
it 

The council were not unanimous, and therefore it sepa- 

; -d without accomplishing anything. 

The multitude was so great that we made our way 
with difficulty through them. 

The army was badly cut up, but made good their re- 
treat. 



190 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The president or secretary will favor us with their 
presence. 

The committee were unanimous in its action. 

Neither of us is willing to give up our claim. 

Every flower and every animal shows the wisdom of 
him who made it. 

Envy and hate manifested itself in his countenance. 

Let every governor and legislature do as it thinks best. 

John or James will favor us with their company. 

Their should be Ms to agree in number with the antecedents John, 
or James. 

The House of ^Representatives were called to order. 

The number of inhabitants in the United States now 
amount to over forty millions. 

Neither Mary nor Sarah were there. 

If he was to be elected, he would disgrace the party. 

There was no bench, nor no seat of any kind that was 
not crowded with people. 

He could not deny but what he borrowed the money — 
{deny that). 

I have the same opinion of the matter with my friend 
— (as). 

Why do you not study like I do — (as). 

The book is not as accurate as I wished it to be — (so 
accurate). 

William's and Mary's reign. 

Men, women, and children's shoes. 

While still the busy world is treading o'er 

The paths they trod five thousand years before. 

These clothes does not fit me. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 191 

The girls' writing is neater than the boys. 

The woman learned my brother to knit. 

Who do yo^. think I met yesterday. 

They are all remarkable studious. 

I have been studying since I come to school. 

James or John seen him coming this way. 

Let us lie our books on the table, and they will lay there 
till we return. 

Many people never learn to speak correct. 

Keep what I have told you a secret between you and I. 

Neither the crew nor the passengers was saved. 

The Board of Education published their proceedings. 

I saw the three first examples that were given. 

Him and me saw the boat when it capsized. 

The whole human race suffers for the sins of their 
ancestors. 

The men of property are those who we generally find 
most negligent of their political duties. 

Was you there when John come. 

There are not many children in our country whose 
education have been entirely neglected. 

There was more than one of them that I seen playing. 

I done my work quick, and he done his. 

John, James and I was in the field when the horses run 
away. 

They were the men who was making a disturbance*. 

The government will change their policy. 



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